All of this material will appear on the exam. Take notes on the workflow, functions, and concepts.
By the end of this lesson you will know how to..
getwd()list.files(pattern = ...)read.csv()dim(), summary(), etc.)This Portfolio is a complete worked example of a PCA analysis of a dataset. It covers all relevant issues
This Portfolio also expands on our understanding of PCA by introducing the concept of PCs explain a proportion of the variation of the data. This is useful for understanding what PC does and what the PCs mean, and also allow us to interpret screeplots more thoroughly.
Check the location of your working directory with
getwd()
# run getwd()
# TODO
getwd()## [1] "C:/Users/slmg/Downloads"Check for the presence of the “walsh2017morphology.csv” file in the
working directory with list.files()
# run list.files()
# TODO
list.files()## [1] "__LSRHS_High_School_Report_Card.pdf"
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## [12] "__LSRHS_Transcript (1).pdf"
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## [17] "__MACOSX"
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## [21] "03-Stoichiometry-student notes.pdf"
## [22] "03-Stoichiometry-student notes.pdf (to print).pdf"
## [23] "04-09b Lab - -8 Dyn Equil Part II Data and graph (Jan 19- 2021 at 4-22 PM).png"
## [24] "04-Reactions-student notes (1).pdf"
## [25] "04-Reactions-student notes.pdf"
## [26] "05-ThermochemistryV2-student notes.pdf"
## [27] "06-AtomicStructure & PT trends-student notes.pdf"
## [28] "07-Lewis Structures & Molecular Geometry-student notes.pdf"
## [29] "07-mean_imputation.Rmd"
## [30] "08-Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding-student notes.pdf"
## [31] "08-PCA_worked.Rmd"
## [32] "09-Gases-student notes.pdf"
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## [36] "10-IMFs and Phases-student notes.pdf"
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## [52] "2022 Pitt Honors Application Essay Prompt (1).pdf"
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## [54] "2022 Pitt Honors Application Essay Prompt.pdf"
## [55] "2201 - 0120 - Exam 1.pdf"
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## [58] "2211 Yellow PPE Form.pdf"
## [59] "38. Layli Long Soldier (1).pdf"
## [60] "38. Layli Long Soldier.pdf"
## [61] "50MillionWords.zip"
## [62] "5MilionWords (1).zip"
## [63] "5MilionWords.zip"
## [64] "6 pm August 15 Fall 2021 EngLit 625 Carol M Bove Syllabus Detective Fiction.docx"
## [65] "Acting French. Ta Nehisi Coates.docx"
## [66] "ADE_4.5_Installer.exe"
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## [72] "Anaconda3-2021.11-Windows-x86_64.exe"
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## [111] "CDLL_Node.class"
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## [113] "Ch13_DNA&Heredity.pdf"
## [114] "Ch14_GeneExpression.pdf"
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## [116] "Ch16_RegulationGeneExpression.pdf"
## [117] "Ch17_Genomes.pdf"
## [118] "Ch18_RecombinantDNA&Biotechnology.pdf"
## [119] "Ch19_Evolution.pdf"
## [120] "Ch20_Phylogenies.pdf"
## [121] "Ch21_EvolutionGenesGenomes.pdf"
## [122] "Ch22_Speciation.pdf"
## [123] "Ch52_PhysicalEnvironment&Biogeography.pdf"
## [124] "Ch53_Populations.pdf"
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## [126] "Ch54_SpeciesInteractions.pdf"
## [127] "Ch55_Communities.pdf"
## [128] "Ch56_Ecosystems.pdf"
## [129] "Chapter 02 - Programs"
## [130] "Chapter 02 - Programs (1).zip"
## [131] "Chapter 02 - Programs.zip"
## [132] "Chapter 03- programs"
## [133] "Chapter 03- programs.zip"
## [134] "Chapter 04-programs"
## [135] "Chapter 04-programs.zip"
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## [137] "Chapter 06-programs.zip"
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## [140] "Chapter 09-programs.zip"
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## [142] "Chapter 21 Study Guide.docx.pdf"
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## [217] "Community Scholarship App 2021 (my copy).pdf"
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## [220] "connected_comp.zip"
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## [224] "cs3400-09-JavaFXPart1.pptx"
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## [226] "desktop.ini"
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## [238] "Disc.4.pdf"
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## [320] "Literary Devices in “The Garden of Forking Paths”.pptx"
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## [361] "P&H Fall 2022.doc"
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## [364] "PCA-missing_data-KEY.Rmd"
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## [383] "Practice Quiz 1.pdf"
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## [386] "Practice Quiz 3-2.pdf"
## [387] "R-4.2.1-win.exe"
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## [400] "Research Links.docx"
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## [437] "Spring Term 2021-2022.ics"
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## [511] "ZoomInstaller.exe"If you have lots of files in the working directory, you can search for the file specifically with list.files(pattern = “walsh”)
# Run list.files() with pattern = "walsh"
# TODO
list.files(pattern="walsh")## [1] "walsh2017morphology.csv"CSV files can be read in with the read.csv()
function.
# add read.csv() to load the file
df <- read.csv(file = "walsh2017morphology.csv") # TODOAlways check to make sure the data looks like what you expected with
head(), summary() and other functions.
# run head(), summary(), and dim() on the data
# TODO
head(df)## spp wing bill weight
## 1 NESP 56 8.5 18.2
## 2 NESP 56 8.5 20.7
## 3 NESP 59 8.0 17.6
## 4 NESP 59 8.2 16.0
## 5 NESP 60 8.3 16.5
## 6 NESP 58 8.5 16.0summary(df)## spp wing bill weight
## Length:73 Min. :53.00 Min. :7.900 Min. :14.5
## Class :character 1st Qu.:56.00 1st Qu.:8.400 1st Qu.:16.0
## Mode :character Median :57.00 Median :8.600 Median :17.0
## Mean :57.01 Mean :8.782 Mean :17.4
## 3rd Qu.:58.00 3rd Qu.:9.240 3rd Qu.:18.9
## Max. :60.00 Max. :9.900 Max. :21.7
## NA's :10 NA's :10 NA's :12dim(df)## [1] 73 4When doing PCA on SNPs you have to consider the possibility that a SNP is fixed and all values in a column are identical. This is not typically an issue for conventional datasets like the morphology data we are working with here. When doing large-scale analyses with 1000s of columns and limits on computational power it would be advisable to check for invariant columns, which could be due to some feature of the data you aren’t aware of or an error in data processing.
We always scale data for PCA. This could be done before or after dealing with NAs and other data preparation issues.
The first column is character data so we’ll drop that when scaling
using df[, -1].
# make a copy of the dataframe
df2_scale <- df
# add scale() to scale the data
df2_scale[,-1] <- scale(df[,-1]) We need to remove NAs with na.omit(). We could impute
the missing data, but there aren’t too many values that are missing. (We
could use a for() loop to do the imputation if we wanted, or my function
mean_imputation())
# add na.omit() to remove the NAs
# assign the output to df2_scale_noNA
df2_scale_noNA<- na.omit(df2_scale) #TODOWe can run a PCA with prcomp(). The first column is
character data so [,-1] is included to that prcomp() doesn’t get it.
# add prcomp() and assign it to an object called
## morpho_pca
morpho_pca<- prcomp(df2_scale_noNA[,-1]) #TODOIts important to assess some things from the PCA output before moving forward with interpreting a plot of the PCA results such as a biplot. These are generally called performance diagnostics.
It is important when doing PCA to decide how many of the new, re-engineered dimensions should be retained. PCA does not inherently reduce the dimensionality of a dataset. If you put in a dataframe with 10 columns into prcomp(), you get 10 PCs (10 dimensions) out of it. Its the job of the data analyst to decide how many of the new features (PCs) should be considered, plot, and/or used in further analyses.
A scree plot is the typical tool for this. The base R scree plot is pretty basic. In general, we’re looking for a steep drop between two PCs. The PCs before the drop are most worthwhile to examine.
# add screeplot() to make the scree plot
screeplot(morpho_pca) #TODO
The bars on the default R scree plot represent the relative importance of the PCs in representing the data.
More specifically, they are proportional to the amount of variation in the data captured by each PC. The more variation represented by a PC, the more important it is.
We can get the information on the percentage of variation in the data
using the summary() command.
First, we get the summary information and store it to an object.
# call summary()
summary_out_morpho <- summary(morpho_pca) #TODOThen we use a function to extract the information on explained variation (importance) we want.
# add return(var_explained) to get output
PCA_variation <- function(pca_summary, PCs = 2){
var_explained <- pca_summary$importance[2,1:PCs]*100
var_explained <- round(var_explained,1)
return(var_explained) # TODO
}This function allows us to specify how many PCs2 we want. The default is 2 PCs, since that is what is usually plotted. Let’s get the first 3 PCs because that’s all there are in these morphological data.
# call PCA_variation(), with PCs = 3
var_out <- PCA_variation(summary_out_morpho, # TODO
PCs =3 )
var_out## PC1 PC2 PC3
## 55.1 32.0 12.8This means that PC1 captures 55.1% of the variation in the data. PC2 captures only 32%, and PC3 captures 12.8%.
These percentages are often reported as labels on biplots and scatterplots of PCA results (See below).
They can also be used to decide how many PCs to work with.
Instead of the default screeplot, we can make a screeplot where the y-axis is the percent of variation captured by each PC. We’ll use the barplot() function to do this.
# number of dimensions in the data
N_columns <- ncol(df2_scale_noNA)
# make barplot
barplot(var_out,
main = "Percent variation Scree plot",
ylab = "Percent variation explained")
abline(h = 1/N_columns*100, col = 2, lwd = 2)
The horizontal line in the barplot is calculated as 100/(# of dimensions in the data) If all the PCs were equally important, then the amount of variation they would explain would be (100)/(# of columns). These data have 3 columns, so if all the PCs were equal, they would each explain 33% of the variation. A general rule of them is to focus on PCs that explain more than this percentage.
Now we’ll make the biplot. Look at the biplot and interpret the relationship between the 3 features bill, weight, and wing. Then read the information below.
# add biplot() to see the biplot
biplot(morpho_pca) #TODO
Note that if the arrows aren’t plotted, its not a biplot.
Get the scores:
# call vegan::scores()
morpho_scores <- vegan::scores(morpho_pca) # TODOCombine the scores with the species information into a dataframe.
# call data.frame()
morpho_scores2 <- data.frame(spp = df2_scale_noNA$spp,
morpho_scores)Plot the scores, with species color-coded
# make color and shape = "spp"
ggpubr::ggscatter(data = morpho_scores2,
y = "PC2",
x = "PC1",
color ="spp" , # TODO
shape = "spp", # TODO
main = "PCA Scatterplot",
xlab = "PC1 (55.1% of variation",
ylab = "PC2 (32% of variation)")
Note how in the plot the amount of variation explained by each PC is shown in the axis labels.
In the biplot created above, the “bill” and “weight” vectors point to the left, and “wing” points straight down.
This means that bill and weight are correlated with PC1, which is always the horizontal axis. Wing is correlated with PC2, the vertical axis.
Bill and weight are very close to each other, so the raw data of these features are going to be highly correlated with each other.
The “Wing” vector points straight down at a about a 90 degree (right) angle to not only PC1, but also bill and weight. We can therefore say that the wing vector is orthogonal to PC1, bill, and weight.