scientific study of the mind and behavior
neuroscience evolving biopsychology field (behavioral biology)
uses theories, hypothesis, experiments
uses empirical method - based on unbiased observation
the o.c.e.a.n.
openness
conscientiousness
extroversion
agreeableness
neuroticism
forensic: scientific activities pertaining or potentially pertaining to law, both civil and criminal
forensic scientists participate in the investigation of major crime - not necessarily violent ones
forensic experts of a different type have investigates numerous computer crimes in the 21st c., including ransom ware attacks and hacking into databases containing credit card information
police and public safety psychology
legal psychology
psychology of crime and delinquency
victimology and victim services
correctional psychology
work settings in which forensic psychologists are found include, but are not limited to, the following:
private practice
family, drug, and mental health courts
military courts and immigration courts
victim services
domestic violence courts and programs
forensic mental health units (govt. or private)
colleges and universities as professors
law enforcement work requires many varied skills, attracts a range of personalities
most of who enter this occupation probably begin hoping to make a difference, others with less noble motives
training and supervision are essential elements in ensuring policing that truly protects and serves every citizen, resident, age group, race, ethnicity, gender, etc.
approx. 15,000 general-purpose law enforcement agencies in the u.s.
police and public safety psychology (ppsp) is the research and application of psychological knowledge and clinical skills to law enforcement and public safety
psychologists now play a vital and expanding role in many police and public safety agencies, as both in-house employees and community consultants
began in the u.s. as a viable profession in 1968
currently 5 national police psychology organizations is the u.s.
the police psychological services section of the internaltion association of chiefs of police (iacp-ppss)
division 18 (police and public safety section) of the american psychological association (apa)
the society of police and criminal psychology (spcp)
the american academy of police and public safety psychology (aappsp)
the american board of police and public safety psychology (abpp)
2 categories (most common)
pre-employment psychological screening
fitness-for-duty evaluations
pre-employment psychological screening occurs when psychologists evaluate a person’s psychological suitability for police work prior to being hired
fitness-for-duty evaluations (FFDEs)
psychologists evaluate an employed police officer’s ability to continue performing the job, at least for the time being
often occurs after the officer has been through personally stressful experiences, either in their personal life or on the job
police culture: rules, attitudes, beliefs, and practices that are thought to be accepted among law enforcement officers as an occupational group
police psychologist doesn’t have to be a former police officer to be an effective service provider to law enforcement agencies
coping mechanisms prescribed by the police culture are often critical to handling the many stresses that this work environment entails
job analysis: systematic procedure for identifying the skills, abilities, knowledge, and psychological characteristics that are needed to do public safety work successfully
first step: understand what officers working within a particular agency do on a day-to-day basis
evaluate whether someone is a good candidate for law enforcement, one must first understand what the job entails
to assess whether someone is fit to return to duty, one must understand what that duty involves
without a job analysis to justify the choice of psychological measures, it’s extremely difficult for the psychologist doing the screening to know what to look for - let alone measure it
job analyses have revealed characteristics that are desirable, and sometimes necessary, for all successful police officers
at least 38 states mandate psychological evaluations for police officers and an estimated 72% to 98% of police agencies require psychological evaluations of their police officers
psychological evaluations - usually in the form of personality measures that may or may not be accompanied by interviews - help ensure that the candidates are free of mental or emotional impairments that would interfere with effective, responsible, and ethical job performance as a police officer
intelligence tests aren’t necessarily effective measures of how an officer is likely to perform on the street
majority of police agencies and police academies still require a written or aptitude test, which may or may not have been prepared with assistance from consulting psychologists
most cases - only licensed or certified psychologists or psychiatrists who’re trained and experiences in psychological assessment instruments and their interpretation should conduct candidate evaluations
americans with disabilities act (1990): far-reaching civil rights law that prohibits discrimination and mandates equal treatment of all individuals regardless of physical or mental disabilities
police psychologist who designs employment screening, selection, and promotional procedures for police agencies must be familiar with all the nuances of the act as well as any case law that has emerged from its interpretation
2008 - congress amended ADA to attempt to restore more protection, in the americans with disabilities act amendments act (adaaa)
equal opportunity commission (eeoc) has divided disability inquires into 2 stages:
pre-offer of employment
post-officer/pre-hire
pre-offer stage, a police agency, must not ask applicants any health or fitness questions that elicit information about disabilities
post-offer/pre-hire stage, police department may make direct inquires about disabilities and may require applicant to undergo medical and psychological examinations
screening-out procedures try to eliminate those applicants who appear to be poorly suited for work in law enforcement
screening-in procedures are intended to identify those attributes that distinguish one job applicant as being potentially a more effective officer than another applicant
helpful to review the importance of validity in psychological testing
validity addresses the question: “does the test or inventory measure what it is designed to measure?”
3 are of particular relevance here: concurrent validity, predictive validity, and face or content validity
concurrent validity: degree to which a test or an inventory identifies a person’s current performance on the dimensions and tasks the test is supposed to measure
predictive validity: degree to which an inventory or test predicts a person’s subsequent performance on the dimensions or attributes the inventory (or test) is designed to measure
a test or inventory has face (or content) validity is its questions appear relevant to the tasks needed in law enforcement
6 personality measures most commonly used:
minnesota multiphasic personality inventory - revised (mmpi-2) and mmpi-3
inwald personality inventory (ipi) and (ipi2)
california psychological inventory (cpi 260 and cpi 434)
personality assessment inventory (pai)
neo personality inventory - revised (neo pi-r)
16 personality factor questionnaire - fifth edition (16-pf)
psychologists began to offer not only stress management but also crisis intervention training, hostage negotiation training, domestic violence workshops, and substance abuse and alcohol treatment
occupational stressors divided into 4 major categories:
organizational stress: emotional and stressful effects that the policies and practices of the police department have on the individual officer
task related stress: generated by the nature of police work itself
external stress: officer’s ongoing frustration with the courts, the prosecutor’s office, the criminal justice process, the correctional system, the media, or public attitudes
personal stress: stressors involving marital relationships, health problems, addictions, peer group pressures, feelings of helplessness and depression, discrimination, sexual harassment, and lack of accomplishment
post-shooting traumatic reaction (pstr) represents a collection of emotions and psychological response patterns that may occur after a law enforcement officer shoots a person in the line of duty
most law enforcement officers complete their career without ever firing a weapon in the line of duty
may result from a number of factors
psychological reactions to critical incidents
relationship difficulties
internal investigations
financial difficulties
frustration and discouragement
easy access to weapons
pre-incident phase: psychologists may provide psychological screening and selection of negotiators; deliver training to negotiators on the psychological aspects that are pertinent to crisis negotiation
intra-incident phases: psychologist on the premises may monitor the negotiations, offer advice on the emotional state and behavior of the individual in crisis, and assist negotiators in influencing the person’s behaviors and intentions
post-incident phase: psychologist may provide stress management strategies, debriefing, and counseling services to the crisis management team
nearly 80% of all hostage situations are “relationship driven” in that perceived relationship difficulties and resentment to be the precipitating factor
research suggests that more than 50% of all hostage-taking incidents are perpetrated by individuals hostage-taking incidents, whether or not they participate during a hostage-taking crisis
police agencies that used a psychologist reported more hostage incidents ending by negotiated surrender and fewer incidents resulting in the serious injury or death of a hostage
social psychology based (issues with quantitative measures)
diversity matters (body, mind, soul)
this work is encompassed under the broad term investigative psychology (ip)
scientific approach designed to improve our understanding of criminal behavior and the investigative process
falls into 3 broad categories
the nature of offender behavior
the social psychology of group crime and terrorism
the cognitive psychology of investigative decision making by law enforcement investigators
3 fundamental questions characterize all criminal investigations
what are the important behavioral features associated with the crime that may help identify ans successfully prosecute the perpetrator?
what inferences can be made about the personal characteristics that may help identify the offender?
are there any other crimes that are likely to have been committed by the same person?
profiling: technique that tries to identify the behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and demographic characteristics of a person based on information gathered from a wide range of sources
when it refers to crime, profiling attempts to describe an unknown person, it’s also used to chronicle the behavioral patterns, thought features, and emotional characteristics (aggression level) of a known person
profiling isn’t a frequent investigative activity of the police and public safety psychology (despite media portrayal)
there may be a tendency to embrace profiling under different names, such as those mentioned above: behavioral analysis, investigative psychology, or criminal investigative analysis
5 categories of profiling
crime scene profiling: examines features of the crime scene to infer to deduce characteristics or motivation of the offender
geographical profiling: analysis of geographical profiling and geographical mapping
geographical mapping: concerned with analyzing the spatial patterns of crimes committed by numerous offenders over a period
geographical profiling focuses on the offender rather than only on spatial crime patterns - as opposed to mapping
geoprofiler concentrates on developing hypotheses on the approx. location of the offender’s residence, base of operation, and where the next crime may occur
summarizes the psychological features of persons who may commit a crime
should describe people from various offender groups
not a major activity of forensic psychologists who consult with law enforcement
2 primary and overlapping features used:
threat assessment: determine if an actual, expressed threat is likely to be carried out
risk assessment: determine if a person is dangerous to self or to others
psychological autopsy: procedure done that’s following a death in order to determine the person’s mental state prior to the death
5 generally accepted manners of death:
natural
accident
suicide
homicide
undetermined
police officers routinely interview witnesses to a criminal incident, including victims themselves
reconstructive theory of memory: humans continually alter and reconstruct their memories of past experiences in the light of present experiences, rather than store past events permanently and unchanging in memory
considerable evidence that people are much better at discriminating between faces of their own race or ethnic group than faces of other races or ethnic groups
differential experience hypothesis: individuals will have greater familiarity or experience with members of their own race and thus will be better able to discern differences among its members
it’s the frequency of meaningful and positive contacts with other races that develops the skill to differentiate among racial or ethnic faces
when a person seen in one situation is confused with or recalled as a person seen in another situation
called “unconscious” because people don’t realize they’re doing it
for this to occur, the previous encounters with the innocent face must have been relatively brief
weapon focus or the weapon effect: blood, masks, weapons, and aggressive, violent actions are more likely to be noticed than clothing, hairstyle and color, height, speech characteristics, or facial features
weapon focus is relevant because the victim or witness may be less likely to recognize the face of the perpetrator or remember other important details about the criminal event
disguises: common practice that offenders disguise their appearance when committing a crime that involves confronting the victim(s)
research indicated that even a relatively simple disguise can effectively reduce eyewitness identification accuracy
witnesses who were intoxicated at the time of the incident are less likely to be asked to testify in court compared to “sober” witnesses
being under the influence of alcohol or marijuana also affects the confidence eyewitnesses have in their own report
alcohol makes you not care, it doesn’t make you unintelligent
interrogation is most often initiated when there is weak or incomplete evidence against the suspect
primary aim is to obtain a confession or to gain information (usually incriminating evidence) that may lead to a conviction
research has identified 71 unique interrogative techniques used by a law enforcement that fall under 6 major headings: reid method: accusatory method taught in usa
research on police interrogations has focused on the effectiveness of 2 different approaches: the accusatory approach (primarily used in the u.s.) and the information-gathering approach (developed in the united kingdom)
confession must be freely and voluntarily given if it’s to be used as evidence, it can’t be coerced
research has revealed that interrogators use the same tactics to interrogate adolescents as they do for adults
clearly and others have emphasized that adolescents are basically ill equipped to withstand the pressures and stresses of interrogation
deposition: proceedings during which potential witnesses are questioned by attorneys for the opposing side, under oath, and in presence of court room recorder
jenkins vs united states (1962): ruled that the lack of a medical degree didn’t automatically disqualify psychologists from providing expert testimony on the issue of mental disorder
after the case, psychologists began to testify not only on issues relating to mental disorders, but on a wide range of issues which they were researching
dual court system: exists to recognize the unity of the nation as a whole on one hand, and the sovereignty of the 50 individual states on the other
federal courts: interpret and apply the u.s. constitution, settle disputes between states and deal with specialized matters such as bankruptcies, copyrights and patents
supreme court is the highest appellate court and is court of last resort
has trial court levels and courts of general jurisdiction (u.s. district courts) and limited jurisdiction (bankruptcy courts)
state courts: interpret and apply state constitutions and laws passed by state legislatures. also settle disputes between citizens or between government and citizens within the state
no 2 state courts are identical
also have trial and appellate courts
have a variety of specialized courts: deal with particular matters such as family, drug, or mental health courts
military courts
one of the specialized courts in the federal system
deal with crimes such as theft or sexual assault, but also offenses unique to the military such as unauthorized absence, desertion, failure to obey orders
civil and criminal courts
in civil cases, 2 or more parties (litigants) approach the legal system often seeking resolution of a dispute. most common is plaintiff seeks relief or a remedy from a defendant, maintain they’ve been personally harmed
in criminal cases, involves an alleged violation of rules deemed so important that the breaking of them incurs society’s formal punishment
most cases reaching the courts are civil rather than criminal cases
line between civil and criminal cases can be blurred
consists of a series of steps or stages through with litigants proceed
process is lengthy, can take years to complete
in criminal cases, evidence deteriorates and both crime victims and defendants are held in abeyance
in civil cases, both plaintiffs and defendants have their lives on hold until the court proceedings have been terminated
delays can be functional
courts can become involved very early in criminal cases
happens when police contact judge or magistrate for a warrant to search or arrest a suspect
many arrests and searches don’t require a warrant
people who are arrested must be given an initial appearance, usually within 24 hours, if they’re held in jail rather than released or cited to appear at court at a later date
judge ensures there are legal grounds to hold an individuals (probable cause)
detainees may be screened for evidence of mental disorder or psychological crisis
most done by social workers, but psychologist can be called if detainee is in a psychological crisis
next step: arraignment
an open proceeding at which formal charges are read
can occur very soon after the arrest or months later
presiding judge asks defendant if they understand the charges, informed of their rights to counsel and asks them to enter pleas, although pleas aren’t required at this point
if defendant pleads not guilty, judge can decide to release him or not
most plead guilty even if charged with minor offense to receive immediate fine or sentence
the not guilty plea sets the trial process in motion
after not guilty plea - one or more pretrial hearings
usually occur virtually, some quite involved with witnesses and officers
numerous decisions made:
forensic psychologists involved during this stage
cases decided for either juvenile or adult court - access juvenile’s files to report and make a testimony about his/her level of development
examine mental health of defendant
discovery process
important process in both civil and criminal cases
requires each side to make information at its disposal available to the other side in preparation of the case
deposition may be required
attended by lawyers from both parties, part of the court record, info may reappear in trial
potential witnesses are questioned in the presence of a court reporter but there is not judge
trial by jury (opposed to bench/court trial), first step is to select jurors
relevant to forensic psychologists who serve as trial consultants to lawyers
potential jurors questioned by lawyers and sometimes the presiding judge
process is called voir dire
**forensic psychologists can attend process and make inferences based on jurors nonverbal behavior or reaction to questions
lawyers have 2 avenues to remove a potential juror
judge or jury renders defendant not guilty, case is over and defendant is free to go
found guilty and convicted - decision must be made whether to incarcerate and for how long
death penalty cases - separate proceeding occurs which the jury must decide to impose the death penalty or an alternate life sentence
disposition stage is also called sentencing
judges may order offender to undergo treatment
role of forensic psychologist can be to evaluate defendants’ potential for responding favorably to treatment, or to assess risk for violent behavior
civil cases - judges render a verdict - usually in monetary form - consider any psychological harm done to the plaintiff, where a forensic psychologist could come in play
presentence investigation report
document that was prepared by an agent of the criminal justice system (probation officer) that includes a social history like information about offenders family background, employment history, level of education, substance abuse, criminal history, medical and mental health history
often includes a victim impact statement, which is a summary of what the victim suffered
psychologists who have examined the offender or the victim within the document itself
civil or criminal trials don’t usually end at the trial and disposition stages
defendants have options to appeal their convictions, sentences, or the judgment against them
convictions can be appealed due to police errors, mistakes made by the judge, faulty instructions given to the jury, inadequate assistance of counsel
sentence can be appealed for being disproportionate to the crime committed
vast majority of criminal appeals are unsuccessful
prosecutors can’t appeal a not guilty verdict
prosecutors can appeal a sentence they think is too lenient
common area of appeal today - death penalty states - especially lethal injection protocols
appeals of civil cases revolve around a defendant’s appeal of a judgment or a jury award
compensatory damages are based on the actual harm the plaintiff suffered, while punitive damages are intended to place extra punishment on the person responsible
some judges have reduced punitive damages when appealed by the defendant
important connection between forensic psychologists and the appellate stage is the filing of the amicus curiae briefs (friend of the courts)
document filed by the interested parties who didn’t participate directly in the trial, but either have a direct stake in the outcome or have research knowledge to offer the appellate court
typically filed by organization on behalf of their members
topics range from involuntary civil commitment, eyewitness testimony, false confessions, child testimony in sexual assault cases, and many more
amicus curiae briefs typically speak for or against an issue involved in the case
trial consultant
often aren’t forensic psychologist, even though work in forensic area
main areas of work for trial consultant are jury selection and assisting the lawyer during trial process
help with various trial tasks such as preparing witnesses, making decisions about trial strategies
most trial consultants help lawyers select jurors that will most likely favor their side of the litigation
scientific jury selection: the application of social science techniques to find a jury that will be favorably disposed toward one’s case
trial consultants would give out surveys to community and collect evidence of negative publicity which would support a change of venue
during trials, consultants use shadow juries: groups of people similar to the jurors in demographic characteristics and possibly attitudes
trial consultants help attorneys prepare witnesses and determine effective strategies for presenting evidence and persuading jurors
problem(s)
during trial, first stage, trial consultants help with the jury selection process
questioning the jurors to best ensure a non biased jury
trial consultants do pretrial research to try and remove jurors who will not likely by sympathetic to their side and select those who would be
trial consultants could also suggest voir dire questions to lawyers and make inferences about perspective jurors based on their responses or nonverbal behavior
psychologists could be found on the witness stand, testifying as expert witnesses for a wide range of cases
the daubert trilogy (3 supreme court cases) articulate the standard to be applied by federal courts in deciding whether expert testimony should be admitted if it’s challenged by the opposing lawyer
the daubert standard: expert evidence must be relevant, reliable, and legally sufficient and that its probative value must outweigh its prejudicial value
occurs in a variety to pretrial hearings, and during both civil and criminal court cases
role of expert witness is to help the judge or the jury in making decisions about matters that are beyond the knowledge of typical laypersons
can speak about fallacy of eyewitness testimony, ptsd, memory, psychological effects of abuse, credibility of child witness, etc.
patient-therapist confidentiality is fundamental
courtroom setting - confidentiality isn’t absolute
per ethics code, clinicians are expected to inform the individual of the nature and purpose of the evaluation as well as who will be receiving the report
testimony provided by expert witness is different from that provided by lay witnesses
lay witnesses can only testify on event they have actually seen
considerable debate among mental health professionals about the wisdom of offering an opinion on the ultimate issue
ultimate issue is the final question that must be decided by the court
forensic psychologists are often asked to predict likelihood that a particular individual will be dangerous to themselves or others
most common task performed by forensic psychologists
clinical vs actuarial prediction
clinical assessments which rely on clinical experience and professional judgments not fared well compared to actuarial assessments
actuarial assessments also have their shortcomings such as focusing on small number of factors and ignore important factors
dynamic risk factors vs static risk factors
dynamic risk factors: those that change over time
stable dynamic factors: changeable, but usually change slowly and may take months or even years
acute dynamic factors: change rapidly, sometimes dependent on mood swings, emotional arousal
static risk factors: historical factors that have been demonstrated to relate to offending potential
actuarial assessments focus more on static risk factors and ignore dynamic risk factors
juvenile delinquency: imprecise, social, and clinical and legal label for a broad spectrum of law and norm-violating behavior
delinquency has different meanings per state
some states, legal definition includes status offenses - aren’t behavior against adult criminal code but only prohibited for juveniles
juvenile delinquent: one who commits an act against the criminal code and who is adjudicated delinquent by an appropriate court
psychological or psychiatric definitions include symptom-based labels of conduct disorder or antisocial behavior
diagnostic designation used to represent a group of behaviors characterized by habitual misbehavior, such as stealing, setting fires, running away, skipping school, destroying property, etc.
under definition, the delinquent may or may not have been arrested for those behaviors
considered a behavioral disorder, NOT a personality disorder and is primarily diagnosed in children under 16 (rare is adults)
amount of delinquent behavior is an unknown area (don’t know how much is contained by family and social structure)
stats collected by law enforcement agencies, courts and juvenile correction facilities (can count the offenders, not those at risk of being first time offenders)
unlawful acts committed by juveniles can be divided into 5 major categories:
unlawful acts against persons
unlawful acts against property
drug offenses
offenses against the public order
status offenses (running away, breaking curfew, truancy)
juvenile justice system historically supported differential treatment of male and female status offenders
adolescent girls were often detained for running away from home whereas the same behavior in boys was ignored or tolerated
recent years - shown the discriminatory approach was unwarranted and the arrest rate for running away was equal for boys and girls
youth crime data collected for a mix of sources
official record of police arrests such as the FBI UCR
reports from victims such as the national crime victimization survey
self-reports of delinquent involvement
juvenile court processing such as national center for juvenile justice
juvenile corrections such as children in custody
probation and parole statistics
solid research evidence that serious, persistent delinquency patterns and adult criminality begin in early childhood
researchers discovered discernible differences between young children who ultimately became serious delinquents and those who didn’t
differences in childhood experiences, biological and genetic predispositions, social skills, and expression of feelings for others
the most fruitful approach is to conceptualize development as following a path or trajectory
research has strongly supported the hypothesis that people follow different developmental pathways in their offending or non-offending histories
important to review the concept of executive function before covering the developmental perspective because it plays a crucial role in the development of crime and delinquency
executive function: mental processes that enable us to plan, focus attention remember instructions, and juggle multiple tasks successfully
refers to a cognitive system in the brain that is “essential for successfully navigating nearly all of our daily activities”
involved in problem solving and the regulation of one’s thoughts, actions, and emotions
ef allows us to regulate emotions and to think flexibly and creatively
it’s an important concept for understanding aggression and antisocial behavior because “people with executive function deficits are less able to override maladaptive response inclinations in order to maintain more appropriate and personally beneficial behavior”
current research indicates that executive functioning resides predominantly in the prefrontal cortex (uniquely human capability) (monkey morals and fairness vs humans)
ef is multidimensional and consists of at least 3 core cognitive processes
working memory
cognitive flexibility (or flexible thinking)
inhibitory control (or self-control or self-regulation)
memory that keeps information in mind so it can be put to use
different from short-term memory
working memory is important for problem solving and reasoning
part of the IQ equation
the ability to think about something in more than one way
involves being flexible enough to adjust to changed demands or priorities, to admit you were wrong, and to take advantage of sudden, unexpected opportunities
opposite of rigidity
includes the skills inherent in verbal fluency, creativity, planning, and judgment
openness dimension of O.C.E.A.N. (70% of population has near low openness school)
involves being able to control one’s attention, behavior, thoughts, and/or emotions to override a strong internal predisposition or external lure, and instead do what’s more appropriate or needed
prevents us from being at the mercy of our impulses, old habits, and negative temptations
requires the ability to follow rules, modulate emotions, and delay gratification
inhibitory control is the “brain’s brake”
there are significant differences among people in executive functioning as well as the rate of EF development (bell curved)
cognitive flexibility believed to reach maturity between ages 18 to 19
criminal behavior decreases exponentially age 25+
EF impairments are also associated with many forms of psychopathology including conduct disorder and psychopathy
EF development can be slowed or damaged by a number of risk factors including the quality of parenting
indicated that delinquency is best understood if we viewed it as progressing along two developmental paths
one that began early in child’s life and launched the child into a career of lifetime offending
one that was restricted to adolescence
more recent research suggest this dual path isn’t necessarily sufficient, but it’s good to talk about
one path we see a child (almost always male) develop a lifelong trajectory of delinquency and crime beginning at a very early age (around age 3 or younger)
behaviors such as biting, hitting at age 4 shoplifting and truancy at age 10, selling drugs at age 16, robbery and rape at age 22, fraud and child abuse at age 30
these individuals are called life course-persistent offenders (LCP’s)
continue their antisocial ways across all kinds of conditions and situations
moffitt found many LCP’s exhibit inherited or acquired neurological problems during their childhoods such as difficult temperament as infants, ADHD in elementary school
some of these problems are present shortly after birth
LCP’s generally commit a wide assortment of aggressive and violent crimes over their lifetime
based on available data - the number of LCP’s in male juvenile offender population is estimated to be somewhere between 5% to 10%, less than 2% of females can be classified as early starters
great majority of “delinquents” are those individuals who take a second path:
begin offending during their adolescent years and generally stop offending somewhere around their 18th bday
these behaviors arise from peer, brain development, and social environmental factors
moffitt labels these individuals adolescent-limited offenders (AL’s)
these behaviors stop as their brain mature neurologically
moffitt estimates that a majority of adolescents are involved in some form of antisocial behavior during their teens, but then stop as their brain matures
ALs are quick to learn they have something to lose if they continue offending
during childhood, ALs have learned to get along with others
ALs are neurologically different from LCPs
LCPs had smaller surface area and thinner cortex in brain regions associated with executive function, motivation, and emotional regulation compared to the adolescent limited group
these brain structures are highly heritable, but environmental factors, such as substance abuse, socioeconomic status, wasn’t ruled out
4 paths have been identified that are perhaps more comprehensively reflect the reality of offending pattern
the ALs (limited offenders)
the LCPs (also called high-level chronic offenders)
the low-level chronic offenders (LLCs)
those with a non-offending patter (NCs)
LLCs exhibited a rise in offending through early adolescence, reached a plateau by mid-teens, and remained at the same offending level well past age 18
LCP boys and girls were similar in risk factors during childhood
men and women on the AL pathway had the same problems but to a lesser extent, and both showed to lessen their offending as they reached adulthood
AL women still demonstrated significant deficits in economic status at age 32
researchers concluded that the overall prognosis for LCP offenders was poor, but found that for AL girls, interventions could help and should focus on factors that may ensnare antisocial adolescents girls into a pathway to poor economic outcomes as women
other researchers have found a significantly lower percentage of girls falling squarely into the LCP path (mostly male)
hypothesizes that reward seeking and impulsivity develop along different timetables and have different neurological influences during adolescent and young adult development compared to moffitt
known as the developmental dual systems model
differences in timetables help account for the well-known high levels of risk taking during adolescence
brain develops rapidly during adolescence
current research found that human brain doesn’t reach full maturity till age 25
adolescent cognitive, emotional, and psychological capacities are in flux throughout the adolescent and young adult years … therefore, can’t be held to the same legal standards as adults
theory focuses on the maturation of 2 different realms
the socioemotional network
the cognitive network of the brain
cognitive-control is typically well developed by mid-adolescence
socioemotional network pertains to the influence of peers and emotional arousal
peer influence and emotional arousal, “the socioemotional network becomes sufficiently activated to diminish the regulatory effectiveness of the cognitive-control network”
explains well behaved kid at home, troublemaker around friends
steinberg hypothesizes that risk taking increases between childhood and adolescence because of developmental changes in the socioemotional system
risk taking declines between adolescent and adulthood because of the developmental changes in the cognitive-control system, which is primarily located in the front areas of the brain (prefrontal cortex)
disruptive behavior is a term that has been applied to a variety of actions that create problems for some children and their caretakers
these behaviors include hyperactivity, impulsivity, inattention, oppositional behaviors, defiance, aggression, and disregarding the rights of others
untreated - disruptive children likely to experience peer rejection, have problems in school, have difficulty getting along with others, and exhibit persistent delinquent behaviors
many develop into long-term chronic, adult, violent, and antisocial behavioral patterns
externalizing disorders: maladaptive behaviors directed at an individual’s environment, such as acting out, antisocial behavior, deceitfulness, hostility, violations of rules and social norms, and aggression
internalizing disorders: maladaptive processes within or directed at the self, such as depression, anxiety, suicidal thoughts, low self-confidence, or low self-esteem
disruptive behaviors are included in at least 2 of the 4 prominent features of moffitt’s LCPs or serious persistent offenders
those 4 are:
hyperactive-impulsivity attention problems (ADHD)
conduct problems (externalizing problems)
deficient cognitive ability
poor interpersonal or social skills (resulting in peer rejection)
violence: physical force exerted for the purpose of inflicting injury, pain, discomfort, or abuse on a person or for the purpose of damaging for destroying property
aggression: behavior perpetrated or attempted with the intention of harming another individual physically or psychologically
intimidation: the act or processes of attempting to force or deter an action by inducing fear
but why?
most violent person in a room immediately becomes the most important and becomes the focus of all the attention
80% to 90% of total arrests for violent crimes
aggravated assault = 76% male, 24% female
females believed to be underrepresented in criminal activity due to more conciliatory behaviors such as performing criminalities in the home away from the eyes of others
statistical data that removes race show the following lead to crime:
fatherless homes
limited economic opportunity
poverty living conditions
when 3 factors placed together crime tables balance amongst all races and ethnic groups … Systematic Criminality of communities is based on class not race
no single profile can reliably predict who will use a gun in a violent action
prevention is most effective at the community level (local)
individuals with mental illness, only a minority are dangerous
neurobiological factors: brain abnormalities or biological factors that prevent social norm compliance
socialization factors: learned patterns of behaviors from early life experiences
cognitive factors: ideas, beliefs, and patterns of thinking that emerge as a result of interactions with the world
situational factors: raw environment
40 years of research created literate that strongly supports that observation that media violence viewing is one factor contributing to the development of violence
desensitizes the viewer to violence. less sensitive to the pain of others
encourages individuals to become more involved in violent actions
demonstrates how desired goods and services can be obtained through the use of aggression and violence
increases the viewers fears of becoming a victim with a corresponding increase in self-protective behaviors and increased distrust of others
sexual violence in X and R rated films have shown to increase sexual aggression in some males
this is all observational learning, using modeling
“exposure to violent video games was associated with increased aggressive behavior, cognitions, affect, desensitization, and decreased empathy.”
have been no direct link between playing violent video games and either delinquency or adult crime
some studies have shown that video games can be an outlet preventing violent behavior by being violent in a game and not in real life
hate/bias crimes: criminal offenses motivated by an offender’s bias against a group to which the victim either belongs or is believed to belong
hate crimes statistics act (1990): requires the fbi to collect data and provide information on the nature and prevalence of violent attacks, intimidation, arson, or property damage directed at persons or groups because of bias against their race, religion, sexual orientation, or ethnicity.
violence against women act (1994): covers gender as a federal hate crime
not authorized in 2020
reauthorized in 2022 with 1.5 trillion dollar u.s. budget
protects women against domestic violence and sexual assault
new protections for native and lgbtq+
10% of all public school students will be sexually assaulted by an educator in their k-12 career
school employee sexual misconduct offenders are typically popular
often recognized for excellence
include all types:
teachers
school psychologists
coaches
principals
superintendents
etc.
90% carried out by males, 10% by females
sexual violence: a sexual act committed against someone without their consent
sexual assault: any non consensual act proscribed by federal, tribal or state law, including when the victim lacks capacity to consent
rape: forced penetration of vaginal, anal, or oral regions of the body
other crimes of a sexual nature are classified as part II offenses
fondling or groping sexual parts of another’s body and lews and lascivious actions such as exposing one’s sexual organs to unsuspecting others
statutory rape: no force is used, but the female victim is under the age of consent (reported to ucr only if someone is arrested)
44% of rapists under 21 y/o
99.99% arrests = male, 0.01% arrests = female
many men convicted of rape manifest a wide spectrum of antisocial behavior across their early life span
70% of sex offenders had a prior arrest for a nonsexual crime
age trajectories: 25, 30, 32 peaks
aggression: instrumental aggression (no anger) and expressive aggression (anger involved used to hurt and humiliate victim)
impulsivity: lifestyle impulsivity to be a powerful predictor of sexual violence behavior
social competence: social assertiveness, communication skills, problems solving skills, social comfort, and political savvy - research indicates many rapists have limit social competencies (will just take)
sexual fantasies: one study - 80% of convicted murderers had fantasies
naïve cognition or beliefs: many male rapists see woman as subordinate or as different than male humans. female’s opinion of things irrelevant
rape myth: myths and misogynistic attitudes appear to play a major role in sexual violence
rape myth acceptance (rma): the false belief that women must be dominated and coerced into sexual activity
connected to abnormal socialization between male and female kids (could occur for a number of reasons)
engage is sexual assault simply because the opportunity presents itself
these types will perform rape during nonsexual events such as a robbery
will only rape when it’s easy and convenient, however this makes these types unpredictable
rapist not “person oriented”, looks at their victim as a sexual object
demonstrates a predominance of global and undifferentiated anger that pervades all areas of the offender’s life
occupational history of the pervasively angry rapist is usually stable and often reveals some level of success
described by friends as having “quick and violent temper”
often have neglected and abused childhoods
carries out attacks that are unplanned and unpremeditated
anger turns off fear neuro-circuits
histronic: dramitic or theatrical
dramatic personality disorder subtype: borderline and antisocial personality disorder 2 other subtypes (cluster B personality disorders)
self-esteem depending on the approval of others
more common in women (67%) than men (33%); 1.8% of total population
uncomfortable unless they’re the center of attention
dress provocatively and/or exhibit inappropriate seductive or flirtatious behavior (in unnecessary setting, but not always)
rapid emotional shifts (happy when center of attention, immediate shift once attention shifts away from them)
acts very dramatically, as though performing before an audience, with exaggerated emotions and expressions, yet appears to lack sincerity
overly concerned with physical appearance
constantly pursuing reassurance or approval
accuse others of cheating on or breaking up with the HPD sufferer, when no relationship existed
be gullible and easily influenced by others
be excessively sensitive to criticism or disapproval
easily bored by routine, no tolerance for frustration, will begin but not finish projects
often don’t think before acting/make rash decisions
often self-centered, rarely show concern for others
threaten or attempt suicide or make rape accusations for attention
have difficulty maintaining relationships, often seems fake or shallow
mind mimic
if willing to live with a broken phone, what other broken things are you willing to live with?
broken relationship? is the partner willing to live with it?
pedophilia: child molestation DSM-5 specifies pedophiles are only attracted to children
incest: intrafamilial child molestation
studies show that many individuals who commit intrafamilial molestation also offend outside the family
less than 1% of men commit such crimes
online surveys shows: 6% of men and 2% of women would have sex with children if they knew they wouldn’t get caught
heterosexual nurturers: victimize boys (avg. age: 12)
noncriminal homosexual offenders: victimize girls (avg. age: 13)
female sexual predators: victimize boys and girls (avg. age: 11)
young child exploiters
homosexual criminals
aggressive homosexual offenders
10.9% for treated offenders, 19.2% for untreated offenders
13.5% for new sex offenders, 25.5% for violent sex offenders
avg. age range of adult rapists 18 - 25, decrease in recidivism as age increases
child sex offenders avg. age range 25 - 35 (extrafamilial, decreased recidivism after age 50, high reoffend rate)
child sex offenders avg. age range 18 - 25 (intrafamilial, low recidivism rate)
probation: court-ordered period of correctional supervision in the community, usually an alternative to incarceration
parole: period of conditional supervised release in the community following a prison term, and it represents approx. 18% of offenders under community supervision
long tradition in canada and europe with the goal of rehabilitation using correctional psychology
hold 8% of total inmate population - 115,000 inmates (2019), was 87,000 in 2000
$150 per inmate, per day
states with most private prisons
montana
hawaii
right to treatment: the right for all inmates to receive medical treatment, both physical and psychological (estelle v. gamble, 1976)
right to refuse treatment: inmates can refuse physical or psychological medical treatment (mckune v. lile, 2002, supreme court ruled inmates can be persuaded to partake in treatment) (sex offender treatment)
right to rehabilitation
prison transfer
privacy and confidentiality
right to competency for execution
right of pretrial detainees: courts allow for those waiting for trial be held in “highly restrictive conditions”, but aren’t allowed to be “punished” (bell v. wolfish, 1979)
disciplinary segregation: solitary confinement for punishment
protective custody: removing an inmate from a population for their protection
administrative segregation: normally in supermax prisons, avg. 23 hours a day isolated in a cell per day
war on drugs declared - 1971
cuban revolution - 1959
new jewel movement - 1973 (grenada)
ethiopia - 1974
soviet union fall in 1990 correlated to extreme increase in domestic arrests. 1990 - 600,000 incarcerated
PhD/PsyD in clincial psychology
masters in counseling
masters in social work
degrees in forensic psychology lead to derivative careers aka, fbi analyst/agent