In recent years, researchers in psychology have shown considerable interest in understanding the contribution of executive function to complex cognitive and achievement outcomes (Miyake & Friedman, 2012). Also, empirical evidence has suggested an important role of executive function in developing academic skills, including reading comprehension (Butterfuss & Kendeou, 2018; Follmer, 2017). Furthermore, theoretical and empirical evidence stated that reading comprehension encompassed a complex integration of multiple skills, such as the ability to efficiently decode words (Torgesen, 2000) and appropriate management of language skills, such as syntactic and semantic representations (Cutting & Scarborough, 2006; Torgesen, 2000; Oakhill & Cain, 2011). In addition, the growing interest in examining the role of executive functioning (EFs), broadly defined as a set of higher-order cognitive processes that facilitate planning, problem-solving, and initiative and maintenance of goal-directed behavior (Miyake & Friedman, 2012) in developing academic skills, has provided empirical evidence about the direct and indirect effects of EFs on reading skills, including word reading, vocabulary, oral and written language comprehension.
The simple view of reading model proposed by Gough & Tunmer (1986) stresses that reading comprehension is a product of decoding and listening comprehension. Decoding involves the utilization of spelling-to-sound correspondences to translate printed text into the spoken language (Ober et al., 2019), while listening comprehension consists of the comprehension of oral language, which includes vocabulary, grammar knowledge, drawing inferences within and between sentences, and integrating information across sentences and ideas in a text. An expansion of this model suggested the inclusion of either additional terms to capture the additive as well as potential multiplicative relation between decoding and listening comprehension or other processes to account for unique variance in reading comprehension (Cutting & Scarborough, 2006). Thus, the empirical evidence has supported the inclusion of additional high-order cognitive skills and strategies, mainly executive processes, to capture the complexity of the relationship between decoding and listening comprehension.
The model examined the role of Executive Function in contributing to Reading Comprehension. Research has supported the executive functions (EFs) of working memory, shifting, inhibition, and planning (Guajardo & Cartwright, 2016) as accounting for significant and unique variance in reading comprehension outcomes. Therefore, the model suggested a significant and direct contribution or effect of working memory to reading comprehension (1). Additionally, the model explored whether the concurrent relations between EFs and reading comprehension were mediated by Word Reading (2) and Language comprehension (3). This approach will allow examining both direct and indirect paths on EFs on Reading comprehension through other language skills (i.e., language comprehension and word reading) (Ober et al., 2019; Kieffer et al., 2021). Additionally, the model suggested a positive correlation between word reading and Language comprehension (4).
All variables involved in the theory are latent variables. To investigate mediation, language comprehension can be measured using a test of oral vocabulary and a listening comprehension test (e.g., Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test). Furthermore, English word reading skills are measures of accuracy in decoding nonwords of increasing difficulty, identifying letters, and reading real words of increasing difficulty (e.g., Woodcock-Johnson III Word Attack and Letter-word Identification subtests).
Reading comprehension is measured using a test that requires students to read and understand short, grade-level passages drawn from narrative and informational text (e.g., Gates-MacGinitie Reading Comprehension Test). Finally, the executive function variable can be measured using different tasks that assess working memory, shifting, planning, and inhibition abilities (e.g., spatial span, double trouble, token search, odd one out, spatial planning, among others.)
Figure below presents the diagram of relationships among the variables explained above.
Although I’m familiar with conducting CFA for analyzing the factor structure of non-cognitive measures, I still have some theoretical gaps in terms of specification, identification, and fit of SEM models. Therefore, my expectation in this course is to acquire knowledge and practice to conduct and analyze properly SEM models and incorporate this approach in my own research.
I have special interest in Latent Growth Model and Multi-sample analysis and measurement Invariance.
Currently, I’m exploring a dataset that contains 320 observations of high-school students in Singapore in three different waves. Overall, the study collected information about grades in a specific math task and information of perceptions about feedback (Receptivity of Instructional Feedback), students’ emotions, and gender. Last year, I was trying to fit a Latent Growth Model with this data, but I did not observe a statistically significant slope. Then, I would like to work with additional data. I’m exploring some options with my advisor and also I’m totally open to receiving your recommendations or suggestions about it.
Butterfuss, R., & Kendeou, P. (2018). The role of executive functions in reading comprehension. Educational Psychology Review, 30(3), 801–826.
Cutting, L. E., & Scarborough, H. S. (2006). Prediction of Reading Comprehension: Relative Contributions of Word Recognition, Language Proficiency, and Other Cognitive Skills Can Depend on How Comprehension Is Measured. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10(3), 277–299. https://doi-org.ezproxy.gc.cuny.edu/10.1207/s1532799xssr1003_5
Follmer, D. J. (2017). Executive function and reading comprehension: A meta-analytic review. Educational Psychologist, 1–19.
Guajardo, Nicole & Cartwright, Kelly. (2016). The contribution of theory of mind, counterfactual reasoning, and executive function to pre-readers’ language comprehension and later reading awareness and comprehension in elementary school. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 144. 27-45. 10.1016/j.jecp.2015.11.004.
Kieffer, Michael & Mancilla-Martinez, Jeannette & Logan, J.. (2021). Executive functions and English reading comprehension growth in Spanish-English bilingual adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology. 73. 101238. 10.1016/j.appdev.2021.101238.
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., & Howerter, A. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100
Oakhill, Jane & Cain, Kate. (2012). The Precursors of Reading Ability in Young Readers: Evidence From a Four-Year Longitudinal Study. Scientific Studies of Reading. 16. 91-121. 10.1080/10888438.2010.529219.
Ober, T. M., Brooks, P. J., Plass, J. L., & Homer, B. D. (2019). Distinguishing Direct and Indirect Effects of Executive Functions on Reading Comprehension in Adolescents. Reading Psychology, 40(6), 551–581.
Torgesen, J. K. (2000). Individual Differences in Response to Early Interventions in Reading: The Lingering Problem of Treatment Resisters. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 15, 55-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/SLDRP1501_6
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