Final project report for Rutgers University 01:790:391 - Data Science for Political Science
[Source]
Social media serve as primary sources of news for many people, and researchers study them to examine political literacy, polarization, and the factors that contribute to the spread of misinformation. Evidence suggests that eye-catching posts create bias in favor of fake news, clickbait, and graphics, and that conservative people demonstrate high amounts of in-group bias. A dataset of Facebook posts shows that the distribution of activity leans toward articles that are false, conservative, or visual.
Misinformation has the power to create contention, influence public opinion, undermine democracy, and uplift malicious or ignorant parties. Its recent momentum has given reason to investigate the quality and correlations of news on popular sites like Facebook.
Previous research suggests:
Objective: Considering background information, the following relationships can reveal the qualities of misinformation and its momentum:
BuzzFeed News (2016) collected posts from a variety of political Facebook pages during the 2016 US presidential election. The dataset has 2282 rows and 14 columns.
fbdata$activity_count = fbdata$share_count + fbdata$reaction_count + fbdata$comment_count
fbdata$Rating_num = ifelse(fbdata$Rating == "mostly true", 3,
ifelse(fbdata$Rating == "mixture of true and false", 2,
ifelse(fbdata$Rating == "mostly false", 1, 0)))
head(fbdata)## account_id post_id Category Page
## 1 1.840966e+14 1.035058e+15 mainstream ABC News Politics
## 2 1.840966e+14 1.035269e+15 mainstream ABC News Politics
## 3 1.840966e+14 1.035306e+15 mainstream ABC News Politics
## 4 1.840966e+14 1.035323e+15 mainstream ABC News Politics
## 5 1.840966e+14 1.035353e+15 mainstream ABC News Politics
## 6 1.840966e+14 1.035367e+15 mainstream ABC News Politics
## Post.URL
## 1 https://www.facebook.com/ABCNewsPolitics/posts/1035057923259100
## 2 https://www.facebook.com/ABCNewsPolitics/posts/1035269309904628
## 3 https://www.facebook.com/ABCNewsPolitics/posts/1035305953234297
## 4 https://www.facebook.com/ABCNewsPolitics/posts/1035322636565962
## 5 https://www.facebook.com/ABCNewsPolitics/posts/1035352946562931
## 6 https://www.facebook.com/ABCNewsPolitics/posts/1035366579894901
## Date.Published Post.Type Rating Debate share_count reaction_count
## 1 2016-09-19 video no factual content NA 146
## 2 2016-09-19 link mostly true 1 33
## 3 2016-09-19 link mostly true 34 63
## 4 2016-09-19 link mostly true 35 170
## 5 2016-09-19 video mostly true 568 3188
## 6 2016-09-19 link mostly true 23 28
## comment_count activity_count Rating_num
## 1 15 NA 0
## 2 34 68 3
## 3 27 124 3
## 4 86 291 3
## 5 2815 6571 3
## 6 21 72 3summary(fbdata)## account_id post_id Category Page
## Min. :6.232e+10 Min. :5.511e+14 Length:2282 Length:2282
## 1st Qu.:1.145e+14 1st Qu.:1.247e+15 Class :character Class :character
## Median :1.841e+14 Median :1.291e+15 Mode :character Mode :character
## Mean :1.867e+14 Mean :3.300e+15
## 3rd Qu.:3.469e+14 3rd Qu.:1.541e+15
## Max. :4.401e+14 Max. :1.015e+16
##
## Post.URL Date.Published Post.Type Rating
## Length:2282 Length:2282 Length:2282 Length:2282
## Class :character Class :character Class :character Class :character
## Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character
##
##
##
##
## Debate share_count reaction_count comment_count
## Length:2282 Min. : 1 Min. : 2.0 Min. : 0.0
## Class :character 1st Qu.: 24 1st Qu.: 149.0 1st Qu.: 37.0
## Mode :character Median : 96 Median : 545.5 Median : 131.5
## Mean : 4045 Mean : 5364.3 Mean : 516.1
## 3rd Qu.: 739 3rd Qu.: 2416.8 3rd Qu.: 390.2
## Max. :1088995 Max. :456458.0 Max. :159047.0
## NA's :70 NA's :2 NA's :2
## activity_count Rating_num
## Min. : 9.0 Min. :0.000
## 1st Qu.: 256.8 1st Qu.:2.000
## Median : 881.0 Median :3.000
## Mean : 9975.2 Mean :2.454
## 3rd Qu.: 3855.5 3rd Qu.:3.000
## Max. :1704500.0 Max. :3.000
## NA's :70A scatter plot can reveal correlations between truth and activity to determine if the quality of truthfulness itself is associated with spread.
Subsetting data and observing mean and median truth ratings and activity by partisanship and media can additionally reveal how the other factors may act as confounding variables.
Note: a scatter plot can handle the wide range of activity values; a regression would not translate into a constructive visual.
liberal <- subset(fbdata, Category == "left")
conservative <- subset(fbdata, Category == "right")
nonpartisan <- subset(fbdata, Category == "mainstream")
link <- subset(fbdata, Post.Type == "link")
photo <- subset(fbdata, Post.Type == "photo")
text <- subset(fbdata, Post.Type == "text")
video <- subset(fbdata, Post.Type == "video")
mostly_true <- subset(fbdata, Rating_num == "3")
mixture <- subset(fbdata, Rating_num == "2")
mostly_false <- subset(fbdata, Rating_num == "1")
completely_false <- subset(fbdata, Rating_num == "0")p <- ggplot(data=fbdata, mapping = aes(x=Rating, y=activity_count, color=Category)) +
geom_point(na.rm = T, size = 3, shape = 4, alpha = .5, position = "jitter")+
scale_x_discrete(limits = c("no factual content", "mostly false",
"mixture of true and false","mostly true"),
labels = c("No Factual \nContent", "Mostly False",
"Mixture of True \nand False","Mostly True"))+
ggtitle("The Spread of Facebook Misinformation")+
ylab("Sum of Shares, Comments, and Reactions")+
xlab("Truth Rating")+
ylim(0, 150000)+
scale_color_manual(name = "Partisanship",
values=c('blue','black', 'red'),
limits = c("left","mainstream","right"),
labels = c("Liberal", "Nonpartisan", "Conservative"))+
theme_bw()+
theme(legend.position="bottom")+
theme(plot.margin=unit(c(1,1,.5,1),"cm"))+
theme(axis.title.x = element_text(margin = margin(t = 20)))+
theme(axis.title.y = element_text(margin = margin(r = 20)))
ggplotly(p)Low truth ratings correlate most to high activity.
Liberal content yields higher activity overall. Truth amongst liberal sources is generally dispersed, but most content is mostly true.
Truth amongst conservative sources is the most dispersed.
Nonpartisan content is rarely false.
High activity correlates most to…
Low truth ratings correlate most to…
To further assess these relationships, I invite you to examine the data summaries from each subset:
summary(liberal)## account_id post_id Category Page
## Min. :1.145e+14 Min. :1.245e+15 Length:471 Length:471
## 1st Qu.:1.145e+14 1st Qu.:1.251e+15 Class :character Class :character
## Median :1.464e+14 Median :1.448e+15 Mode :character Mode :character
## Mean :2.271e+14 Mean :1.366e+15
## 3rd Qu.:3.469e+14 3rd Qu.:1.463e+15
## Max. :3.469e+14 Max. :1.473e+15
##
## Post.URL Date.Published Post.Type Rating
## Length:471 Length:471 Length:471 Length:471
## Class :character Class :character Class :character Class :character
## Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character
##
##
##
##
## Debate share_count reaction_count comment_count
## Length:471 Min. : 1 Min. : 71 Min. : 1.0
## Class :character 1st Qu.: 864 1st Qu.: 3327 1st Qu.: 296.2
## Mode :character Median : 3658 Median : 9549 Median : 592.0
## Mean : 18025 Mean : 21745 Mean : 1623.3
## 3rd Qu.: 13850 3rd Qu.: 27136 3rd Qu.: 1397.5
## Max. :1088995 Max. :456458 Max. :159047.0
## NA's :30 NA's :1 NA's :1
## activity_count Rating_num
## Min. : 84 Min. :0.000
## 1st Qu.: 4863 1st Qu.:1.000
## Median : 16380 Median :3.000
## Mean : 42287 Mean :2.023
## 3rd Qu.: 43819 3rd Qu.:3.000
## Max. :1704500 Max. :3.000
## NA's :30summary(conservative)## account_id post_id Category Page
## Min. :1.357e+14 Min. :5.511e+14 Length:666 Length:666
## 1st Qu.:1.357e+14 1st Qu.:5.530e+14 Class :character Class :character
## Median :3.897e+14 Median :1.248e+15 Mode :character Mode :character
## Mean :2.891e+14 Mean :1.066e+15
## 3rd Qu.:3.897e+14 3rd Qu.:1.535e+15
## Max. :4.401e+14 Max. :1.542e+15
##
## Post.URL Date.Published Post.Type Rating
## Length:666 Length:666 Length:666 Length:666
## Class :character Class :character Class :character Class :character
## Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character
##
##
##
##
## Debate share_count reaction_count comment_count
## Length:666 Min. : 2.0 Min. : 2 Min. : 0.0
## Class :character 1st Qu.: 44.5 1st Qu.: 142 1st Qu.: 16.0
## Mode :character Median : 209.0 Median : 531 Median : 51.0
## Mean : 1249.9 Mean : 1828 Mean : 265.4
## 3rd Qu.: 973.5 3rd Qu.: 1733 3rd Qu.: 210.0
## Max. :40316.0 Max. :31112 Max. :6711.0
## NA's :11 NA's :1 NA's :1
## activity_count Rating_num
## Min. : 11 Min. :0.000
## 1st Qu.: 228 1st Qu.:1.000
## Median : 955 Median :2.000
## Mean : 3372 Mean :2.068
## 3rd Qu.: 3270 3rd Qu.:3.000
## Max. :69196 Max. :3.000
## NA's :11summary(nonpartisan)## account_id post_id Category Page
## Min. :6.232e+10 Min. :1.035e+15 Length:1145 Length:1145
## 1st Qu.:6.232e+10 1st Qu.:1.283e+15 Class :character Class :character
## Median :1.841e+14 Median :1.291e+15 Mode :character Mode :character
## Mean :1.105e+14 Mean :5.394e+15
## 3rd Qu.:2.194e+14 3rd Qu.:1.015e+16
## Max. :2.194e+14 Max. :1.015e+16
##
## Post.URL Date.Published Post.Type Rating
## Length:1145 Length:1145 Length:1145 Length:1145
## Class :character Class :character Class :character Class :character
## Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character
##
##
##
##
## Debate share_count reaction_count comment_count
## Length:1145 Min. : 1.0 Min. : 2.0 Min. : 0.0
## Class :character 1st Qu.: 13.0 1st Qu.: 92.0 1st Qu.: 39.0
## Mode :character Median : 33.0 Median : 260.0 Median : 103.0
## Mean : 160.7 Mean : 694.4 Mean : 207.2
## 3rd Qu.: 100.2 3rd Qu.: 668.0 3rd Qu.: 238.0
## Max. :22880.0 Max. :39730.0 Max. :5400.0
## NA's :29
## activity_count Rating_num
## Min. : 9.0 Min. :0.000
## 1st Qu.: 161.8 1st Qu.:3.000
## Median : 436.5 Median :3.000
## Mean : 1082.3 Mean :2.857
## 3rd Qu.: 1102.8 3rd Qu.:3.000
## Max. :57205.0 Max. :3.000
## NA's :29summary(link)## account_id post_id Category Page
## Min. :6.232e+10 Min. :5.515e+14 Length:1780 Length:1780
## 1st Qu.:6.232e+10 1st Qu.:1.249e+15 Class :character Class :character
## Median :1.841e+14 Median :1.447e+15 Mode :character Mode :character
## Mean :1.860e+14 Mean :3.532e+15
## 3rd Qu.:3.469e+14 3rd Qu.:1.015e+16
## Max. :4.401e+14 Max. :1.015e+16
##
## Post.URL Date.Published Post.Type Rating
## Length:1780 Length:1780 Length:1780 Length:1780
## Class :character Class :character Class :character Class :character
## Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character
##
##
##
##
## Debate share_count reaction_count comment_count
## Length:1780 Min. : 1.0 Min. : 2.0 Min. : 0.0
## Class :character 1st Qu.: 21.0 1st Qu.: 130.5 1st Qu.: 35.0
## Mode :character Median : 80.5 Median : 463.0 Median : 114.0
## Mean : 1222.2 Mean : 2403.9 Mean : 310.2
## 3rd Qu.: 494.0 3rd Qu.: 1853.5 3rd Qu.: 307.5
## Max. :219688.0 Max. :100593.0 Max. :9300.0
## NA's :12 NA's :1 NA's :1
## activity_count Rating_num
## Min. : 11 Min. :0.000
## 1st Qu.: 216 1st Qu.:3.000
## Median : 731 Median :3.000
## Mean : 3948 Mean :2.645
## 3rd Qu.: 2772 3rd Qu.:3.000
## Max. :329581 Max. :3.000
## NA's :12summary(photo)## account_id post_id Category Page
## Min. :6.232e+10 Min. :5.511e+14 Length:207 Length:207
## 1st Qu.:1.357e+14 1st Qu.:1.042e+15 Class :character Class :character
## Median :1.841e+14 Median :1.253e+15 Mode :character Mode :character
## Mean :2.253e+14 Mean :1.446e+15
## 3rd Qu.:3.469e+14 3rd Qu.:1.464e+15
## Max. :3.897e+14 Max. :1.015e+16
##
## Post.URL Date.Published Post.Type Rating
## Length:207 Length:207 Length:207 Length:207
## Class :character Class :character Class :character Class :character
## Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character
##
##
##
##
## Debate share_count reaction_count comment_count
## Length:207 Min. : 1.0 Min. : 2 Min. : 0
## Class :character 1st Qu.: 303.5 1st Qu.: 815 1st Qu.: 39
## Mode :character Median : 6015.5 Median : 15494 Median : 462
## Mean : 16038.4 Mean : 25102 Mean : 843
## 3rd Qu.: 18960.5 3rd Qu.: 36920 3rd Qu.: 1189
## Max. :261962.0 Max. :226937 Max. :11347
## NA's :11
## activity_count Rating_num
## Min. : 20 Min. :0.000
## 1st Qu.: 1394 1st Qu.:0.000
## Median : 23820 Median :0.000
## Mean : 42614 Mean :1.014
## 3rd Qu.: 59168 3rd Qu.:3.000
## Max. :491157 Max. :3.000
## NA's :11summary(text)## account_id post_id Category Page
## Min. :6.232e+10 Min. :1.037e+15 Length:4 Length:4
## 1st Qu.:1.381e+14 1st Qu.:1.196e+15 Class :character Class :character
## Median :2.017e+14 Median :1.268e+15 Mode :character Mode :character
## Mean :2.109e+14 Mean :3.432e+15
## 3rd Qu.:2.746e+14 3rd Qu.:3.503e+15
## Max. :4.401e+14 Max. :1.015e+16
## Post.URL Date.Published Post.Type Rating
## Length:4 Length:4 Length:4 Length:4
## Class :character Class :character Class :character Class :character
## Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character
##
##
##
## Debate share_count reaction_count comment_count
## Length:4 Min. :2.00 Min. : 5.00 Min. : 2.00
## Class :character 1st Qu.:2.00 1st Qu.:36.50 1st Qu.: 5.75
## Mode :character Median :2.50 Median :52.50 Median : 16.50
## Mean :2.75 Mean :51.25 Mean : 34.50
## 3rd Qu.:3.25 3rd Qu.:67.25 3rd Qu.: 45.25
## Max. :4.00 Max. :95.00 Max. :103.00
## activity_count Rating_num
## Min. : 9.0 Min. :2.00
## 1st Qu.: 45.0 1st Qu.:2.75
## Median : 71.5 Median :3.00
## Mean : 88.5 Mean :2.75
## 3rd Qu.:115.0 3rd Qu.:3.00
## Max. :202.0 Max. :3.00summary(video)## account_id post_id Category Page
## Min. :6.232e+10 Min. :5.518e+14 Length:291 Length:291
## 1st Qu.:1.145e+14 1st Qu.:1.042e+15 Class :character Class :character
## Median :1.841e+14 Median :1.286e+15 Mode :character Mode :character
## Mean :1.632e+14 Mean :3.194e+15
## 3rd Qu.:2.194e+14 3rd Qu.:1.467e+15
## Max. :3.469e+14 Max. :1.015e+16
##
## Post.URL Date.Published Post.Type Rating
## Length:291 Length:291 Length:291 Length:291
## Class :character Class :character Class :character Class :character
## Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character
##
##
##
##
## Debate share_count reaction_count comment_count
## Length:291 Min. : 1.0 Min. : 9.0 Min. : 0.0
## Class :character 1st Qu.: 31.0 1st Qu.: 169.0 1st Qu.: 55.5
## Mode :character Median : 86.0 Median : 563.5 Median : 197.5
## Mean : 14929.3 Mean : 9509.1 Mean : 1552.7
## 3rd Qu.: 355.5 3rd Qu.: 2382.0 3rd Qu.: 593.8
## Max. :1088995.0 Max. :456458.0 Max. :159047.0
## NA's :47 NA's :1 NA's :1
## activity_count Rating_num
## Min. : 15.0 Min. :0.000
## 1st Qu.: 412.2 1st Qu.:2.500
## Median : 1158.5 Median :3.000
## Mean : 27594.2 Mean :2.309
## 3rd Qu.: 3784.5 3rd Qu.:3.000
## Max. :1704500.0 Max. :3.000
## NA's :47summary(mostly_true)## account_id post_id Category Page
## Min. :6.232e+10 Min. :5.515e+14 Length:1669 Length:1669
## 1st Qu.:6.232e+10 1st Qu.:1.253e+15 Class :character Class :character
## Median :1.841e+14 Median :1.292e+15 Mode :character Mode :character
## Mean :1.616e+14 Mean :4.048e+15
## 3rd Qu.:2.194e+14 3rd Qu.:1.015e+16
## Max. :4.401e+14 Max. :1.015e+16
##
## Post.URL Date.Published Post.Type Rating
## Length:1669 Length:1669 Length:1669 Length:1669
## Class :character Class :character Class :character Class :character
## Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character
##
##
##
##
## Debate share_count reaction_count comment_count
## Length:1669 Min. : 1 Min. : 2.0 Min. : 0.0
## Class :character 1st Qu.: 18 1st Qu.: 119.5 1st Qu.: 37.0
## Mode :character Median : 57 Median : 404.0 Median : 122.0
## Mean : 1676 Mean : 2964.3 Mean : 331.3
## 3rd Qu.: 280 3rd Qu.: 1583.0 3rd Qu.: 325.0
## Max. :322630 Max. :210016.0 Max. :13530.0
## NA's :36 NA's :2 NA's :2
## activity_count Rating_num
## Min. : 9 Min. :3
## 1st Qu.: 201 1st Qu.:3
## Median : 627 Median :3
## Mean : 4937 Mean :3
## 3rd Qu.: 2238 3rd Qu.:3
## Max. :546154 Max. :3
## NA's :36summary(mixture)## account_id post_id Category Page
## Min. :6.232e+10 Min. :5.515e+14 Length:245 Length:245
## 1st Qu.:1.357e+14 1st Qu.:1.246e+15 Class :character Class :character
## Median :3.469e+14 Median :1.447e+15 Mode :character Mode :character
## Mean :2.896e+14 Mean :1.301e+15
## 3rd Qu.:3.897e+14 3rd Qu.:1.534e+15
## Max. :4.401e+14 Max. :1.015e+16
##
## Post.URL Date.Published Post.Type Rating
## Length:245 Length:245 Length:245 Length:245
## Class :character Class :character Class :character Class :character
## Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character
##
##
##
##
## Debate share_count reaction_count comment_count
## Length:245 Min. : 3 Min. : 31 Min. : 0.0
## Class :character 1st Qu.: 117 1st Qu.: 413 1st Qu.: 38.0
## Mode :character Median : 615 Median : 1417 Median : 178.0
## Mean : 5084 Mean : 6216 Mean : 750.4
## 3rd Qu.: 2443 3rd Qu.: 5184 3rd Qu.: 594.0
## Max. :347294 Max. :293333 Max. :32419.0
## NA's :4
## activity_count Rating_num
## Min. : 57 Min. :2
## 1st Qu.: 622 1st Qu.:2
## Median : 2236 Median :2
## Mean : 12119 Mean :2
## 3rd Qu.: 8900 3rd Qu.:2
## Max. :673046 Max. :2
## NA's :4summary(mostly_false)## account_id post_id Category Page
## Min. :1.145e+14 Min. :5.515e+14 Length:104 Length:104
## 1st Qu.:1.357e+14 1st Qu.:5.544e+14 Class :character Class :character
## Median :3.683e+14 Median :1.249e+15 Mode :character Mode :character
## Mean :2.934e+14 Mean :1.146e+15
## 3rd Qu.:4.023e+14 3rd Qu.:1.486e+15
## Max. :4.401e+14 Max. :1.541e+15
##
## Post.URL Date.Published Post.Type Rating
## Length:104 Length:104 Length:104 Length:104
## Class :character Class :character Class :character Class :character
## Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character
##
##
##
##
## Debate share_count reaction_count comment_count
## Length:104 Min. : 1 Min. : 18 Min. : 3.00
## Class :character 1st Qu.: 256 1st Qu.: 713 1st Qu.: 69.25
## Mode :character Median : 1178 Median : 1979 Median : 198.00
## Mean : 3570 Mean : 5896 Mean : 506.27
## 3rd Qu.: 3656 3rd Qu.: 5288 3rd Qu.: 691.00
## Max. :32181 Max. :59251 Max. :3183.00
## NA's :1
## activity_count Rating_num
## Min. : 45 Min. :1
## 1st Qu.: 1216 1st Qu.:1
## Median : 4006 Median :1
## Mean :10014 Mean :1
## 3rd Qu.:10932 3rd Qu.:1
## Max. :90486 Max. :1
## NA's :1summary(completely_false)## account_id post_id Category Page
## Min. :6.232e+10 Min. :5.511e+14 Length:264 Length:264
## 1st Qu.:1.357e+14 1st Qu.:5.537e+14 Class :character Class :character
## Median :1.464e+14 Median :1.250e+15 Mode :character Mode :character
## Mean :2.082e+14 Mean :1.274e+15
## 3rd Qu.:3.469e+14 3rd Qu.:1.451e+15
## Max. :4.401e+14 Max. :1.015e+16
##
## Post.URL Date.Published Post.Type Rating
## Length:264 Length:264 Length:264 Length:264
## Class :character Class :character Class :character Class :character
## Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character Mode :character
##
##
##
##
## Debate share_count reaction_count comment_count
## Length:264 Min. : 1 Min. : 2.0 Min. : 0.0
## Class :character 1st Qu.: 51 1st Qu.: 192.8 1st Qu.: 22.0
## Mode :character Median : 593 Median : 1341.0 Median : 176.0
## Mean : 19648 Mean : 19518.2 Mean : 1469.3
## 3rd Qu.: 12852 3rd Qu.: 27092.0 3rd Qu.: 876.2
## Max. :1088995 Max. :456458.0 Max. :159047.0
## NA's :29
## activity_count Rating_num
## Min. : 11 Min. :0
## 1st Qu.: 463 1st Qu.:0
## Median : 3116 Median :0
## Mean : 42771 Mean :0
## 3rd Qu.: 43566 3rd Qu.:0
## Max. :1704500 Max. :0
## NA's :29Facebook data shows that falsehood itself corresponds to high user engagement, supporting prior research. Visual forms of news additionally garner more attention, as do liberal sources. Generally, partisans are more heavily associated with fake news than nonpartisans. These findings can help experts predict and mitigate the spread of misinformation. More research can be done to further explore the four-dimensional relationship between truth, activity, partisanship, and media and determine causation rather than mere correlation.
Jost, J. T., van der Linden, S., Panagopoulos, C., & Hardin, C. D. (2018). Ideological asymmetries in conformity, desire for shared reality, and the spread of misinformation. Current Opinion in Psychology, 23, 77–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.01.003
Grabe, M. E., & Bucy, E. P. (2009). Visual Bias. In Image Bite Politics. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195372076.003.0005
Silverman, Craig. Hyperpartisan Facebook Pages Are Publishing False And Misleading Information At An Alarming Rate. (2016). BuzzFeed News. Retrieved December 16, 2021, from https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/partisan-fb-pages-analysis
Zannettou, S., Sirivianos, M., Blackburn, J., & Kourtellis, N. (2019). The Web of False Information: Rumors, Fake News, Hoaxes, Clickbait, and Various Other Shenanigans. Journal of Data and Information Quality, 11(3), 10:1-10:37. https://doi.org/10.1145/3309699