Canada
Country Introduction
Title: Canada Authors: Shuqi Tang, Abbey Prendiville, Emanuel Velazquez, Jaspreet Kaur
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## 24i&ii. 5 most populous urban areas
4iii. Urban Population: 81.562% Rural Population: 18.438%
4iv. Average Population Density Urban: 245.019 per sq. km Rural: 0.771 per sq. km
4v. Northern Canada is arctic terrain with snow all year, making it almost inhabitable. Southern Canada has warm summers, with prairie and forest landscapes. Toronto (most populated city) is located in the Great Lakes region, which has many natural resources, economic trade routes and similar warm summer weather.
Demography
Author: Abbey Prendiville
Crude Mortality Rate
As seen the figure above, Canada’s crude mortality rate has remained been pretty constant around 7.2 deaths per 1000 people for most of the past half century. However, within the past decade (2010-2019) the mortality rate has had a sharp increase, peaking at 7.7 deaths per 1000 people in 2018. When looking at Canada’s neighbors to the North (Greenland) and South (The United States), we can see that they have both also experienced a similar increase in mortality rates peaking at 9 deaths per 1000 people and 8.7 deaths per 1000 people respectively. This increase in mortality rate for Canada can be associated with an increase in population as well an aging population (Statistics Canada, 2015). As the baby boom generation is getting older, it is causing the mortality rate to rise more than it has in the past half-century.
Crude Fertility Rate
Life Expectancy
Canada has experienced a steady increase in life expectancy since 1960 for both males and females. In 1960, the average life expectancy for males was 68.26 years old and for females was 74.15 years. 2019 data shows that males now have a life expectancy of 80 years and females have a life expectancy of 84.2 years. This can be related to increase in standard of living and access to medical care. It is also clear from the figure above that women and men have vastly different life expectancies over the year. Research has shown that men tend to have shorter a life expectancy than women because they tend to take bigger risks, have more dangerous jobs, higher rates of heart disease, etc. (Shmerling, 2020).
Infant Mortality Rate
Life Expectancy & Mortality Trends
Since 1960, Canada has experienced an increase in life expectancy while also experiencing a decrease in infant mortality. While Canadian men were expected to live to age 68 in 1960, they are now living to age 80. That is a significant increase over 60 years. Canadian women have had a longer life expectancy than men since the 1960s, and have also experienced an increase of the past 60 years. Women’s life expectancies have increased from 74 years to 84 years. This is in stark contrast to the trend of infant mortality. The infant mortality rate in Canada has decreased by 85% from 1960 to 2019. In 1960, 27.8 out of every 1000 live births resulted in an infant mortality, while in 2019 only 4.2 out of every 1000 lives births resulted in an infant mortality.
Looking at these two trends, life expectancy and infant mortality, it appears that as life expectancy increases, infant mortality rates decrease. These could both be related to improvement in medial technology and care within the country.
Median Age
As seen in the figure above, Canada has seen a significant increase in median age of the population. Increasing from 27.3 years old in 1955 to 41.1 years in 2020. This is a sign of an aging population which can be traced back to the baby boom generation getting older.
Working Population
The percent of the Canadian population that is within working age has fluctuated over the years with the past decade seeing a trending decline. Canadians can legally start working at age 14 years old and the average age of retirment is 64 years old. Most of the available data is representatvie of citizens aged 15-64, so that is what is represented in the above graph. In 2020, 66.12% of the population was within the ages of 15-64. This was a little bit lower than the previous year which was 66.5%. It appears that Canada will continue to see a declining working age as the older citizens start to retire.
Population Pyramid
Looking at this population pyramid, it is clear that there is a bit of a dip in population between Canadian citizens who are aged 25-29 and 55-59. It seems there there was a decreasing population and then it started to slightly increase. This might be associated with baby boomers and then the children of baby boomers. Additionally, there has been a significant decrease in population after those aged 25-29. This is also reflected in the fertility rate graph above, where fertility rates have been declining since the mid-1990’s. As fertility rates decrease the population becomes more narrow on the bottom of the population pyramid.
Cultural-Linguistic Information
Author: Shuqi Tang
Most spoken languages
English and French are Canada’s two official languages, spoken at home by about 26 million and 8 million Canadians respectively. Nevertheless, Canada’s linguistic diversity extends beyond the two official languages. Following these two languages, Mandarin ranks 3rd in terms of the number of speakers.
Geographic distribution of major language speakers
At the same time, language preferences vary from region to region. As you can see in the chart below, Quebec is the major French-speaking region.
Economic Information
Top Canadian exports to U.S
Top Canadian imports from U.S
Median Adult income
Five largest industries (in terms of revenue generated based on GDP 1.6 trillion, x1,000,000)
How much of the country’s food is produced internally versus imported?
Rate of unemployment among 20-30 year olds
Education
Author: Shuqi tang
Average years of schooling among adults aged 25+
Over all, Canada is a well-educated country. Canada performs well in terms of average educational attainment compared with many other nations. According to the most recent Human Development Report, Canadians aged 25 and over have obtained, on average, 13.4 years of schooling in 2019. This figure has been rising since 1990, as is shown below.
Percent of those aged 25+ completing tertiary education
According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, or OECD, A country’s education levels can be broken down into three tiers: below upper secondary, upper secondary, and tertiary. Tertiary education, also known as post-secondary education, refers to any education pursued beyond the high school level, such as certificate programs, undergraduate degree programs, graduate degree programs, etc.
Based on statistics in 2021, Canada is the most educated country globally in terms of tertiary education , with 56.71% of adult residents ages 25 to 64 who have received a tertiary education: two-year or four-year degrees or have received an education through a vocational program. Japan has the second-highest percentage of 51.44%, followed by Israel with 50.92%.
The chart below shows the educational attainments of adults aged 25-64 in Canada.
Average cost of yearly tuition at a college / university (in local currency and as percent of median adult income)
However, the cost of such a high average education level is not low. As is shown in the chart below, the average yearly tuition fee at a university for Canadian citizens in Canada, both in local currency and as percent of median adult income, has been on the rise since 2006.
Demographic or Socioeconomic Patterns
Income inequality Author: Emanuel Velazquez
Fig.1 GINI Coefficients in Canada and by each province
Income inequality is a growing concern in Canada as among OECD countries it is second in terms of income inequality only behind the United States (Breau, 2015). Rising levels of inequality are worrisome since they contribute to social stratification and less class mobility. This economic trend has been analyzed through a majority of factors. Studies have been conducted to research health effects of income inequality. Income inequality was not found to be a strong indicator of health but Socio-Economic Status and other economic indicators are better indicators that conclude that lower class populations are the most at risk (Latif, 2015). The factors most related to income inequality were race and gender. In general Black folks,indegenous people, racialized immigrants, and women are the most affected by income inequality. Individuals who were both women and racialized suffered the most, having the biggest wage gap between all groups (Block, et al 2015). A startling statistic is that Black folks had high levels of labor force participation with also high levels of unemployment and wage gaps. Institutionalized and economic discrimination are the biggest factors affecting inequality and the demographics of the country display it. To remedy the fact the government should enact further policy to institutionalize anti-racist values and protect economic rights of marginalized communities. Another analysis of inequality is based on a regional perspective. Factors that contributed to higher inequality depended on a region’s industrial development, unemployment rate, age composition and population density (Breau, 2015). Using these metrics showed two themes. The first eastern provinces are less developed, have steady rates of employment, and normal distributions of population density, these factors make the eastern princes have a stagnant inequality rate. Meanwhile, the western provinces were more industrial, had higher levels of unemployment and greater population density. Thus income inequality in the western provinces is growing, with an increasing inequality rate. Again the government should create policy efforts to close the income inequality gap in industrialized, densely populated regions and attempt to create a stagnant income inequality gap.
Economic challenges and opportunities caused by demographic processes Author: Emanuel Velazquez
Fig.2 Amount of Refugee Arrivals in Canada from 1980-2017, (in thousands) Demographic processes always create unique cultural relationships between different groups. Canada is no different in that it has unique cultural relationships between groups but these relationships are many times uneven and groups stand out more than others. Canada is one of the western countries with the highest intake of refugees (Steward et al, 2015). There was a study done on refugees from different African countries arriving to the country. Although the state brings in lots of refugees, these populations struggle intensely with the entire process. Many times refugees encounter linguistic and social barriers to access health care and other social programs (Steward et al, 2015). Considering many of the people that come are women and children, the government should be more proactive in providing adequate resources to the newly arrived people. There should be a comprehensive and in-depth assistance program to support these newly migrated groups. The Canadian government’s responsibility with refugees is closely related to the issue of indigenous rights and communities. Currently Canada, like many other settler-colonial nations has an abysmal record with indigenous communities. With environmental collapse looming, it is of utmost importance to include indigenous groups in policy making decisions. Corporate interest has long monopolized ocean access and sea resources while also contributing heavily to pollution (Bennet et al, 2018). Indigenous groups should have access and autonomy to coastal lands as they greatly contribute to ethical and responsible land management (Bennet et al, 2018). Cultural group management is an issue for every country not just Canada. Another culture group issue is in Quebec. The French separatist movement in the region creates cultural and electoral friction as regional based voting has been linked to demographic factors. This has led political incumbency being affected the most by this type of voting (Daoust & Dassonneville, 2018). The article favored better economic conditions as the prime factors towards limiting the effects of regionalism. Again the role of the state is to provide sufficient economic, social, and political resources to all demographic groups in order to mitigate any potential negative relationships in society.
Fertility
Author: Abbey Prendiville
Post-World War II Canada experienced a baby boom much like its neighboring countries. The baby boom reached a peak in 1959 when the fertility rate reached 3.94 births per woman. As women began having access to higher education, contraceptives, paid work, and delay in marriage the fertility rate started to decline (Statistics Canada, 2018). The country has experienced a reduced fertility rate in recent years falling from around 1.8 births per woman in 1990 to around 1.5 births per woman in 2019 (World Bank, 2019). This is significantly below the replacement rate of 2 births per woman, causing the population to decline. Countries across the world have been experiencing similar decreases in fertility rates.
In a 2004 study, Jennifer Payne found that geographic location and socio-demographic status were the most important factors in determining fertility rates. It is especially useful to look at the differences within Provinces and Territories in Canada. Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta have the highest fertility rates. Newfoundland and Labrador, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Quebec and British Columbia have the lowest fertility rates within the country. Researchers found that provinces with higher fertility rates can be associated with a larger Aboriginal population as well as a higher population of younger women (Payne, 2004).
A decrease in fertility rates can have a variety of effects on the Canadian economy. A decreasing population can lead to a shrinking workforce, aging population, increase in medical costs and more (Ridler, 1979). As the baby boom generation ages out of the workforce in particular, the declining fertility rate will become an even greater problem in terms of economic impact. The country will need to take new measures in order to increase its population. The country has began to increase access to child care and parental leave in order to encourage citizens to have more children (Government of Canada, 2019).
Age Structures
Author: Abbey Prendiville
When compared to other G7 countries, Canada has a large gap between people aged 65 and older and children under 15. This can be attributed to a few factors including: longer life expectancy, baby boomers aging, decreased fertility rate, and low fertility rates (Government of Canada, 2019). This disproportionate number of children to seniors puts strain on the economy. As seen in the figure above, the population of Canadian citizens 65 and over is projected to continually increase over the next 10 years which will continue the trend of an aging population since fertility rates are decreasing at the same time.
Canada has an aging population as fertility rates are falling throughout the country. This can be impactful to the economy and the prospering of the country overall for a variety of factors. An aging population can put strain on the economy because of the cost of maintaining the elderly, particularly medical costs (Ridler, 1979). As Canadians age, they require more medical care and government funding. Additionally, a decreasing younger population means that the number of people within working age who can participate in the labour market is smaller. The labour market is essential to a prosperous economy and GDP, so as the aging population phases out of the market, the Canadian economy will suffer (Jackson, Clemens, & Palacios, 2017).
Due to this disproportionate distribution of ages in the population in Canada, immigrants are becoming and important and essential part of the Canadian population. Immigrants can help build up the number of working-age people in the country and contribute to the GDP (Statistics Canada, 2019). The country has a fairly high immigration population with around 300,000 new immigrants annually, and around 8 million immigrants living there in total (Statista, 2021). This burst of immigration will help offset the aging population and increase the workforce.
Population Growth
Figure 1: Population Growth Historically
One of Canada’s most critical population growth as visible on the graph above is trends of slower growth of population between the years 15 to 64, compared to previous years. It is said that this trend will most likely continue as in the previous years due to the country’s socio-economic progress. It is important to consider the population between the age of 15 and 64 due to it being the working-age population that fuels the country’s economy. The population aged 15 to 64 is proportionally higher in the Metropolitan areas of Northwest Territories (71.0%), Yukon (70.6%), and Alberta (68.5%), and lower in the Atlantic provinces (Statistics).
The urban population of Canada’s metropolitan area has a positive population growth trend. It has slowed down in recent times, in line with the overall population growth trend but holds a slower growth nonetheless. There has been record-high population migration out of the metropolitan areas, including Toronto and Montreal. At the same time, municipalities near Toronto, including Milton and Brampton, have experienced an incoming population. On the other hand, Montreal experienced a loss in the central city in recent times, and movement to municipalities around Mirabel and New Westminster increased at the same time. These municipalities are urban centers but hold a place away from the inner cities. ` Even though the population growth has been declining, Canada still is among the countries with a highly proportionate working population. The consequences of this trend include a steady economic growth for Canada. This is due to the fact that a large portion of the population still works and contributes to the economy of the country. However, this working population might see a sharp downwards trend in the near future since the baby boomer generation is close to the tail end of this population demographic. This would require the government to alter the immigration policies in the near future to cater to this changing socio-economic trend (Statistics).
Population Decline
Figure 2: Labor Force Population Decline
The overall population of Canada is on the verge of a significant decline. As projected in the graph above, the labor force population of Canada is projected to decrease overtime. This is due to the fact that a considerable part of the population is aging. An aging population leads to a smaller working population and higher health care costs. Therefore, to balance this aging population, Canada’s immigration policies must be in place to attract the migration of younger crowds into the country. The author of the article, Gill, states that statistically, the government needs to have a million immigrants by the turn of the century in the year 2100, to keep the country’s economy running smoothly in the long run.
This article stresses on the consequences of population decline in the labor market in Canada in the long run. The participation of the overall population in the Labor Market in Canada is on a downward slope trend hugely due to an aging population coupled with other concerns. Since Canadians live longer than before and have fewer children at the same time, this aging population will bring significant challenges of increased health care expenses and Old Age Security issues in the coming decade. This calls for the country to make economic and government financing changes soon and move towards pro-growth policies.
The article by emphasizes the causes of the slow-down in the overall population in Canada. The pandemic is the cause of a 5.4% climb in deaths. Another major issue during the pandemic was close to no increase in births which led to record lows for the trends. Immigration cuts due to travel restrictions and quarantine regulations led to the cities losing the flow of migrants coming into them to stimulate the economy. Soon, the demand for labor in the major cities will require immigration to inflow temporary residents. The article mentions the positive impact of the vaccine-driven decline in deaths and its contributions to “natural” population influx.
Immigration
Author: Shuqi Tang
In terms of Canada’s population, one essential issue is immigration. As shown in the graph below, the number of immigrants has been increasing since 2001 (OCED, 2021). Currently, annual immigration in Canada amounts to more than 300,000 new immigrants. As of 2020, there were above 8 million immigrants with permanent residence living in Canada - roughly 21.5 percent of the total Canadian population (Statista, 2021b).
There are numerous reasons why people from all over the world want to immigrate to Canada. In 2019, 58% were economic immigrants – seeking for better job opportunities, for better personal growth, etc. (Open Government, 2020). Apart from economic reasons, culture is also a driving factor. Canada embraces multiculturalism. Indeed, Canada is well known for its ‘mosaic’ culture wherein every different culture lives in harmony with each other, which contributes to a friendly cultural environment to immigrants (Career Canada Immigration, 2021).
Canada has long implemented favorable policies on immigration under the consideration of family reunification, demographic and economic challenges, and humanitarian protection.
The large number of immigrants have brought several positive effects to Canada’s society and economy. In effect, Canada is facing serious demographic challenges: its population is aging and its birth rate is among the lowest in the G7 countries. Welcoming newcomers helps to offset the subsequent social and economic challenges. Thanks to its openness to immigrants, Canada was the only G7 country that saw an increase in population (Scotiabank, 2021).
Besides, Canada has relied on newcomers to help stimulate economic growth. The graph below shows that since 2001, the number of International Mobility Programs work permit holders, who constitutes a major part of the potential migration, has skyrocketed (Statista, 2021b).
Allowing skilled immigrant workers into Canada offsets extreme labor shortages. One industry where this trend is apparent is in the skilled trades. Few young Canadians are getting into trades professions such as welding, carpentry, electrical repair, and plumbing, leaving a shortage of workers in these fields. Immigrants who are skilled trade workers help to solve this problem (Randstad Canada, 2019).
In terms of public opinion, most Canadians are comfortable with current immigration levels. Half of Canadians agree immigration needed for population growth. The large majority of Canadians, 84 per cent, agree that the economic impact of immigration is positive (Thevenot, 2020). They see immigrants as good for the economy and not a threat to their own jobs.
In short, immigration in Canada has been on the rise since 2001. Such trend has been encouraged by Canada’s government and has had positive impacts.
Gender Roles in Family
Author: Shuqi Tang
The division of household labor has long been an important focus of researchers examining equality between women and men. The graph below gives us an overview of how Canadian couples divide their household tasks in 2017 (Statistics Canada, 2017).
From the graph we can see that, two routine household tasks were done primarily by women: preparing daily meals (56.4%) and doing laundry (61.1%). Certain household tasks were reported by half of couples to be shared equally, e.g., doing the dishes (51.5%), organizing the household’s social life (50.2%), and grocery shopping (48.9%). Doing outside work was the only household task done primarily by men. 82.9% of couples reported that outside work (e.g., repairs) was done primarily by the male partner.
There are several factors that explain the differences in the division of labor between different Canadians. An important factor is the education level of the couple. Research has found that the household tasks are more equally shared between highly educated couples (Sullivan 2010). Immigration status is also related to the difference in the division of labor between the couple. Compared with couples born in Canada, a higher percentage of immigrant couples report that men take on major responsibilities for several daily household chores. However, this difference may be partly attributable to the fact that due to Canada’s immigrant selection system, immigrants often arrive with high levels of education, which tends to favor equal family division of labor (Statistics Canada 2017b).
Overall, changes in the gender division of labor have been slow, indicating a gradual development towards equality over the decades (Marshall 2006; Moyser and Burlock 2018). As is shown below, increases in the proportion of couples who reported sharing household tasks equally were also observed between 2011 and 2017 for the majority of household tasks.
It is worth noting that COVID-19 may lead to new trends. In fact, Zossou (2021) recently pointed out that, for each task, the proportion of couples reporting that it is mainly done by men all has increased between 2017 to 2020 (between June 15 and 21).Does this mean that the epidemic has accelerated the equal division of labor between men and women? More research needs to be done.
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Introduction
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Economic Information
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Cultural-Linguistic Information
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Education
Educational attainment in the population aged 25 to 64, off-reserve Aboriginal, non-Aboriginal and total population. (2021, March 19). [Dataset]. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3710011701
OECD. (2021). Adult education level (indicator). doi: 10.1787/36bce3fe-en (Accessed on 03 December 2021)
OECD. (2021). Population with tertiary education (indicator). doi: 10.1787/0b8f90e9-en (Accessed on 03 December 2021)
Statista. (2021). Average Canadian undergraduate tuition fees 2006–2021 [Dataset]. https://www.statista.com/statistics/542989/canadian-undergraduate-tuition-fees/
Immigration
Career Canada Immigration. (2021). 8 Reasons to Immigrate to Canada. Retrieved December 2, 2021, from https://www.careercanadaimmigration.com/blogs/reasons-to-immigrate-to-canada/#1
OECD. (2021). International Migration Database [Dataset]. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=MIG
Open Government. (2020). Permanent Residents – Monthly IRCC Updates - Open Government Portal. Retrieved December 2, 2021, from https://open.canada.ca/data/en/dataset/f7e5498e-0ad8-4417-85c9-9b8aff9b9eda
Randstad Canada. (2019). Randstad Canada. Retrieved December 2, 2021, from https://www.randstad.ca/employers/workplace-insights/job-market-in-canada/how-does-immigration-actually-impact-canadian-jobs/
Scotiabank. (2021). Why Canada is prioritizing immigration during the pandemic. CIC News. https://www.cicnews.com/2021/06/why-canada-is-prioritizing-immigration-during-the-pandemic-0618502.html#gs.iamomn
Statista. (2021a). IMP work permit holders in Canada 2000–2020. Retrieved December 2, 2021, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/555033/imp-work-permit-holders-canada-2000-2014/
Statista. (2021b). Immigration in Canada: Statistics & facts. Retrieved December 2, 2021, from https://www.statista.com/topics/2917/immigration-in-canada/
Thevenot, S. (2020). Most Canadians say immigration makes Canada a better country: study. CIC News. Retrieved December 2, 2021, from https://www.cicnews.com/2020/10/most-canadians-say-immigration-makes-canada-a-better-country-study-1016085.html#gs.i8vp2r
Gender roles
Marshall, K. (2006). “Converging gender roles.” Perspectives on Labour and Income 7 (7). Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 75-001-XIE.
Moyser, M., and A. Burlock. (2018). “Time use: Total work burden, unpaid work, and leisure.” In Women in Canada: A gender-based statistical report. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 89-503-X. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.
Statistics Canada. (2017a). Microdata User Guide. General Social Survey 2017 – Family. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.
Sullivan, O. (2010). “Changing differences by educational attainment in fathers’ domestic labour and child care.” Sociology 44 (4): 716–733.
Zossou, C. (2021). “Sharing household tasks: Teaming up during the COVID-19 pandemic.” StatCan COVID-19: Data to Insights for a Better Canada. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 45280001. Ottawa: Statistics Canada