Housing policy during COVID-19 crisis: Challenges and solutions¹

DIW Berlin and NRU HSE St. Petersburg
kkholodilin@diw.de

Abstract

The coronavirus pandemic, which started in December 2019 and is currently spreading rapidly around the world, has a noticeable impact on the economy and thus also on the housing market. Since the measures to curb the spread are causing economic activies to decline massively, small and medium-sized companies in the service, hospitality, and transport sectors in particular, but also the self-employed, are often unable to meet their short-term obligations such as rents, loan interests, and labor costs. Private tenants are also affected, if they receive no or significantly less income due to the containment regulations. The governments all over the world reacted to this deplorable situation by applying various restrictive and stimulating measures. Suggested and implemented measures aim to help the tenants and homeowners in these difficult times. Here, we present a detailed analysis of the challenges generated by the crisis and measures used to cope with them by examining their advantages and disadvantages based on the experience of various countries.

Introduction

The main objective of rental market regulations is to guarantee the affordability of housing. The large-scale application of restrictive rental policies (such as rent control and protection from eviction) started during World War II.² Typically, these policies are strengthened as a reaction to different supply and demand shocks. The most prominent examples of negative supply shocks are destructions of housing stock or construction stops as a result of wars or natural catastrophes (earthquakes or hurricanes). The positive demand shocks usually take form of immigration. In any case, the result is a demand overhang and strongly increasing housing prices and rents.

By contrast, the pandemic of COVID-19 that broke out in December 2019 in Hubei (China) and then quickly spread to the rest of the world represents a negative demand shock for the housing market. The purchasing power of tenants and homeowners decreases, which drastically reduces their ability to pay their rents and service their mortgage debts. As the governments in many countries are trying to slow down the spread of virus, they are imposing quarantines and social isolation. These measures hit many industries, especially those directly serving consumers, such as retail trade, air transportation, and services. The employees and owners of small enterprises are particularly sensitive to drastic demand reductions. Unlike the low-income people, who are often covered by the social security (such as unemployment benefits and housing allowances) or the employees of the public sector, whose salaries are not cyclical, the lower-middle-income persons employed in the private sector are the most subject to the demand fluctuations. Therefore, their incomes fall, which makes them unable to pay for rental housing in case of tenants and serve their mortgage loans in case of homeowners with mortgage. The payment delays belong to the few justified reasons that allow the landlords to evict their tenants. Thus, given that the isolation measures took several months and can take further weeks or even months when the second wave of pandemic comes, the risk of large numbers of tenants and homeowners being evicted is very high.

In this study, we investigate current COVID-19 related economic crisis and the measures taken by governments worldwide to cope with its consequences at the housing marekt. We start from examining the scale of financial troubles facing households and putting them under risk of being evicted. Then, we consider governmental policies directed to alleviating the negative impact of the crisis. Finally, the prospects of the housing market are discussed.

Financial problems of households and housing market

Figure 1 shows the monthly mortgage delinquency (the share of homeowners who are 30 or more days past due in the total number of homeowners with mortgages but not in foreclosure), serious mortgage delinquency (the share of homeowners who are 90 or more days past due in the total number of homeowners with mortgages or in foreclosure), and foreclosure rates in the USA between June 1995 and February 2021. In April 2020, delinquency rate jumped up pointing to the serious troubles that many homeowners are facing to keep up with their debt obligations. While mortgage delinquencies are still way below those of 2009–2011, the increase is the steepest one during the sample period. In May 2020, the delinquency rate started slowly to decline. However, serious delinquency rate keeps increasing. This can be a scary presage of troubles to come. Interestingly, foreclosure rate is still on the downward trend that has been observed after the Great Recession. This is possibly a reflection of protective measures taken by the US government.

Figure 1: Mortgage delinquencies and foreclosures in the USA, 1995-2020

By contrast, in other countries, no signs of rising mortgage delinquency can be detected, as Figure 2 shows. Note that the dashed line indicates March 2020, when the pandemic outbreak led to worldwide lockdowns. Indeed, the mortgage arrears are still on a downward trend: in Chile since 2010, in Canada and Russia since 2011, in Ireland since 2013, while in Spain since 2014.³

Figure 2: Mortgage delinquencies selected countries

At least three reasons can contribute to a still very low mortgage delinquency in many countries. First, the households prefer to cut other expenses than to expose themselves to the risk of losing their home. Second, the governmental financial support to the persons, whose incomes suffered from the pandemic, allows them to keep afloat and to service their financial obligations. Third, this can to do with the reluctance of banks to classify the arrears as defaults due to capital requirements issues. Therefore, sometimes banks provide to the persons in arrears the so-called payment breaks, as is the case of Ireland (Gaffney and Greany 2020).

As seen in Figure 3, the ability of tenants to pay their rents also suffered a lot. The figure displays the percentage of tenants in good standing, which is a sum of tenants who paid rent on time, those who paid in the grace period, and those who paid late, in South Africa. In addition, the share of tenants who paid their rent on time is shown.

Figure 3: Tenants with good rent payment standing in South Africa, 2007-2020

Starting from April 2020, the proportion of good standing tenants plummeted from 81.5% in the first quarter 2020 to 71.8% in May 2020. The scale of decline largely is comparable to that observed during the Great Recession 2008–2009. The proportion of tenant, who pay on time, also fell strongly and reached its trough in May 2020. However, since June 2020, after the lockdown was lifted, a slow recovery started, so that both indicators have increased, although did not attain yet their pre-crisis levels.

Figure 4 shows the share of payment deferrals and non-payments of mortgages and rents by the US households at weekly frequency, starting from April 23, 2020. Unfortunately, no earlier data are available for comparison. Moreover, in the end of July 2020, the first wave of data collection stopped. The second wave started in the late August, but it does not contain information on deferred payments. In the late October, the third wave followed.

Figure 4: Mortgage and rent payment delays in the USA, 2020

Source: Household Pulse Survey of the US Census Bureau.

Nevertheless, several interesting conclusions can be drawn from this graph. First, the share of tenants unable to serve their rental obligations is almost triple compared to the corresponding share of homeowners with mortgage debt. Second, the share of homeowers not paying or deferring their payments did not experience too much changes during the period under consideration. It can be explained by the fact the largest increase in this proportion occurred between March and April, as seen in Figure 1, while the Census Bureau started collecting its Household Pulse Survey data in the end of April. In any case, the results of the Survey have the same magnitude — about 7% as the data in Figure 1. Third, by contrast, financial problems of tenants keep growing and at the end of the sample, the share of not-paying and deferring tenants exceeds 20%.

Figure 5, which shows the so-called Rent Payment Tracker from the US National Multifamily Housing Council (NMHC), offers another view of the same phenomenon. This indicator reflects the proportion of apartments for which the rent was paid up to a certain day. According to the NMHC, the results are based on data on 11–11.5 million homes across the country.⁴

Figure 5: Percentage of rent payments made, 2019-2021

Source: National Multifamily Housing Council and own representation.

In Spain, the rent non-payments have increased noticeably due to the corona crisis, as Figure 6 shows. It represents the percentage of rent non-payment cases (incidencias de impagos) in relation to the total number of rental contracts monitored by the Spanish company FIM. FIM collects the data from various landlords in Spain, maintains a rental contract register, and monitors rental payments in order to minimize non-payments. For 2020, the rent default indicator is collected on a weekly basis in order to timely trace corona-related effects on the rental housing market.

Figure 6: Share of rent non-payments in relation to the total number of monitored residential leases, 2020

Source: Fichero de Inquilinos Morosos Iberica S.L.U.

At the end of March 2020, the share of rental defaults almost doubled and remained at this high level until the beginning of June. The number of rent non-payments includes not only the rental delinquency, but also late payments, which come about for a variety of reasons.

In 2019, which can be regarded as normal, the proportion at the end of the month varied between 95.2 and 97.7%. In other words, the rents remained unpaid in 2.3–4.8% of the apartments. In 2020, the share of rent payments made fell to 93.6–97.2% and the share of apartments with rental debts rose to 2.8–6.4%. The share of unpaid rents was particularly high in April 2020. A certain deterioration can be observed in August. The first September value of the payment partially or fully made is substantially lower than that in 2019. So far, however, the slight increase that takes place during the pandemic does not suggest that there is a payment crisis on the rental housing market.

The fact that, despite the severe economic crisis, there has not yet been a dramatic deterioration in rental performance in the USA can be explained by three reasons that are similar to those explaining the relatively low mortgage delinquencies in many countries. First, in order to avoid homelessness, households place more value on paying their rents than other expenses that have not been paid because of the quarantine. Second, it shows the effect of the generous subsidies that the victims of the crisis have received from the state. Third, certain private household expenditures were cut due to the lockdown, e.g., travels and leisure. This can be seen in the dramatic increase of the personal saving rate of USA that sprung from 7.6% in January 2020 (this value is almost the long-term average between 2011 and 2020) to 33.7% in April 2020.⁵

Faced with such negative developments on the housing market, the governments in various countries are looking for the possibilities to cope with them. The objective of this paper is to examine the legislative initiatives (both enacted and at the stage of drafts) worldwide. Below these initiative are examined for individual countries.

Many countries commit to protecting their tenants and homeowners

In the face of these threatening developments, governments in various countries are looking for ways to dampen their impact. Four protective measures are used: protection of tenants from eviction, mortgage relief, rent freezes, and rent subsidies. The ways in which the different countries choose to do this will be presented below. So far, at least 78 countries have introduced or announced measures at national or regional level to protect tenants and property owners who have been badly affected by the coronavirus crisis; see Figure 7. In addition, Figures 8-11 show the geographical distribution of protection measures by countries. Figure 7 shows which of the four different policies (mortgage relief, eviction ban, rent freeze, and rent subsidy) is introduced in each country. Yellow shaded bars mean that the measure is not established from above, but is agreed upon by the private institutions, such as banks or landlords. Green reads as measures under planning, while rose and brown correspond to the already enacted measures at regional and national level, respectively.

Figure 7: Protecting measures in individual countries

Mortgage relief

The most popular protection measure are mortgage reliefs, which are implemented in 64 countries. This measure is designed to help homeowners to avoid losing their property, if they are unable to service their mortgage loans and are in arrears with interest payments due to corona-related income losses. The government prescribes the financial institutions to phase out debt payments for until after the end of the crisis. Sometimes no formal regulations are passed, but the banks themselves decide to grant their customers a mortgage break. The following countries have made use of such a means: Albania, Algeria, Angola, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cabo Verde, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Maldives, Malta, Mexico, Morocco, Namibia, Norway, Oman, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Puerto Rico, Romania, Russia, Salvador, San Marino, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, UAE, Uganda, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Uruguay, USA, Venezuela, Zimbabwe.⁶

Figure 8: Geographical distribution of mortgage relief measures

Eviction bans

A second measure is the protection of tenants from eviction. It was introduced in 52 countries. Since mid-March 2020, many countries have suspended or are planning to ban evictions of tenants whose incomes have fallen particularly sharply due to the COVID-19 pandemic because of rent arrears. These include: Angola, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada (Quebec and Ontario), Colombia, Costa Rica, Côte d’Ivoire, Cyprus, Ecuador, El Salvador, Ethiopia (Tigray), Germany, India (Maharashtra), Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Mexico (Baja California), the Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan (Punjab and Sindh), Panama, Peru, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, the United Arab Emirates (Abu Dhabi and Dubai), the United Kingdom, and the USA.⁷ In some countries, e.g., in Brazil, after intial lengthy discussions the additional crisis-related protection of tenants was rejected.⁸ Most of the time, the regulations refer to private residential property. In Germany and Portugal, however, tenants of residential and commercial properties are protected. France, on the other hand, has so far only protected small and medium-sized companies, while Romania generally plans to protect companies against dismissal. In 39 countries, the moratorium on evictions is accompanied by mortgage approvals.

Figure 9: Geographical distribution of eviction ban measures

Rent freeze

The third, a much less popular protective measure, is rent freezes. Rental stops are only available or planned in 24 countries. Some governments have prohibited rent increases during the state of emergency, denoted as the shortes rent freeze bars in Figure 7. Sometimes rents are even supposed to be reduced (Greece by 40%, while Costa Rica and Spain by 50%) — displayed as middle-size bars in Figure 7. In extreme cases, the rent payments are completely suspended (Gabon, Nepal, and Venezuela), see full-length rent freeze bars in Figure 7. Countries that have implemented such policies include Albania, Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Czechia, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Gabon, Greece, Guinea, Ireland, Ivory Coast, Luxembourg, Nepal, New Zealand, Oman, Panama, Spain, USA, Venezuela.⁹ The freeze is sometimes differentiated according to the size of the landlord. In Spain, for example, rents are reduced or suspended only with large landlords (with more than ten apartments or built-up areas of more than 1500 \(m^2\)). Small landlords are spared from rent control. The freeze can also be applied to specific tenant groups. For example, in Nepal, it is planned to exempt from paying rents only persons “working in various unorganized sectors.”

Figure 10: Geographical distribution of rent freeze measures

Rent subsidies

Finally, in some countries (for example, in the Canadian province of British Columbia, Luxembourg, Portugal, and Spain), it is planned to flank the protection against evictions and the freeze of rents with compensation for the landlords, for example in the form of subsidies or interest-free loans.¹⁰ This is to avoid losses due to the freeze on rents. Such subsidies to tenants or landlords are granted in 20 countries. In Singapore, the government exempts landlords from property tax, who, in turn, are to pass these benefits to their tenants by relieving them from rent payments during the crisis.¹¹ Similarly, the government of Greece plans to drop the income tax and, if needed, also of the Single Property Tax (ENFIA) paymentes of landlords, who suffered from rent reductions.¹² The small number of subsidizing countries is related to a high financial cost of such measures. It seems to be much easier to freeze rents and mortgages by shifting the burden to the landlords and banks than to provide financial support. Such policy is understandable, given the strongly increased expenditure and uncertainty about the duration of the crisis. The cost can be minimized using a differentiated approach. For instance, in Ecuador, a draft law suggests a provision of a state loan only to tenants, whose landlords are old or belonging to a vulnerable group people for whom the housing rents are the only source of subsistence.

Figure 11: Geographical distribution of housing subsidies measures

Responses at local level

In some countries, especially those with federalist organization, the responses to the crisis appear first at the local level: provinces or even municipalities. In certain cases (e.g., in Australia, Canada, India, and Pakistan), the responses remain local, while in other countries (like the USA), the central government takes nationwide measures. Below we consider three such examples: Australia, Canada, and the USA.

Figure 12 depicts spatial distribution of the four policy tools across the states and territories of Australia. The red color denotes states and territories with protection measures imposed by the governments, while yellow means that the measures (in this case mortgage relief) are agreed upon privately by the banks.

Figure 12: Geographical distribution of housing policies in Australian states and territories

As seen, the majority of states and territories issued eviction bans.¹³ The same states, except for Queensland, have also rent freezes, which are often accompanied by the rent relief. This typically takes form of land tax rebates for landlords in order to enable them provision of rent reductions for their tenants.

Figure 13 shows how the same four emergency policies are distributed by the provinces of Canada.

Figure 13: Geographical distribution of housing policies in Canadian provinces

Again, the majority of provinces (12 of 13) imposed bans on eviction of tenants during the sanitary crisis, while only 5 provinces provided rent subsidies and 3 introduced rent freezes.¹⁴

Similar picture is observed in the USA, as seen in Figure 14 that shows the geographical distribution of the application of the housing policy measures across the US states.

Figure 14: Geographical distribution of housing policies in the US states

As seen, the vast majority of states introduced eviction bans (46 states) and mortgage reliefs (35 states).¹⁵ By contrast, only 2 states took advantage of rent freezes and 4 states of rent subsidies.

Effectiveness of regulations

An important characteristic of any regulation is its enforceabilty. If a governmental regulation remains only on paper, then it is useless. The effectiveness of a regulation measure can be assessed by looking at its intended effect. For example, in case of rent control, it is the rental price dynamics, while, in case of eviction bans, it is the number of evictions before, during, and after the period, when such bans were valid.

During a total quarantine, the enforcement of eviction claims is anyway very problematic. The courts are difficult to reach and they are overfilled with applications. Thus, the protection from evictions is guaranteed almost automatically. For example, in the USA, in places with only hearing bans, eviction filings were 66% below the corresponding period of 2019, while in where both filings and hearings were prohibited, eviction filings declined by 99% (Cowin, Martin, and Stevens 2020)

Similarly, Figure 15 depicts the evolution of eviction filings in selected US cities by weeks. It compares the eviction filings in 2020 (green line) to the average filings numbers observed in 2012–2016 (black line). The grey shaded areas display the periods, when the corresponding city an eviction ban was active. The data are obtained from the Eviction Tracking System of Eviction Lab at Princeton University that collects nationwide eviction data obtained from courts.¹⁶

Figure 15: Eviction filings in the US cities prior and during the COVID-19 pandemic

Source: Eviction Lab.

Several conclusions can be drawn from this picture. First, in all cities, the introduction of eviction bans was accompanied by a decline in the number of eviction filings to virtually zero level. Thus, eviction bans appear to be very effective. Second, the lifting of an eviction ban led to some increase in the number of filings, which normaly is below the levels observed in the past. One exception here is Milwaukee (WI), where eviction filings immediately returned to their pre-crisis levels. This means that eviction bans remain effective for some time even after their removal. Third, in some cases, the eviction filings started to decline even before the introduction of bans: Boston (MA) and Bridgeport (CT). Probably, this can be explained either by incomplete information on eviction bans or by the lockdown-related break in the operations of local courts.

The same developments can be observed in England and Wales, see Figure 16, which shows the number of claims submitted to courts by mortgagees and landlords and the number of possessions between 1999 and 2020. The shaded area denotes the pandemic period. The observations in 1999–2008, for which annual data are available, are divided by four to render them comparable with the quarterly data.

Figure 16: Mortgage and landlord claims and repossessions in England and Wales

Source: Ministry of Justice of the UK.

The introduction of legislation prohibiting evictions of tenants and mortgagors affected by the pandemic led to a virtual halt of legal actions against them. Both claims and possessions precipitated toward zero.

Perspectives

Governments around the world are aware of the precarious situation of many tenants and homeowners and were able to quickly react to the new challenges. Here, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the four protective measures considered in this study.

The protection of tenants from evictions related to the rent non-payments appears to be a very effective tool of protection. The protection from eviction as well as rent freezes are equivalent to the income redistribution from landlords to the tenants. During the emergency, the landlords have to give up their rental revenues, while still having to pay their mortgage debts, taxes, and service charges related to their properties. By contrast, the government, which is already supporting the economy by billion dollar injections, does not incur any additional expenses. After the emergency state is over, the tenants will be faced with the necessity to pay not only their normal rent but also their rental arrears. Thus, their effective rents will be higher for several months or even years. In case, the government or landlords decide to pardon the rental debts of the tenants experiencing payment problems, this will diminish the revenues of the landlords. Rent freezes or reductions are generally the most invasive and damaging measure. Typically, they are scheduled to be lifted after the end of emergency. However, in practice, they can remain much longer in place, especially if the pandemic was preceded by strong and long-lasting rent increases. The postponement of rent payment will lead to a higher rental burden in the years following the crisis. If the sanitary crisis lasts for at least six months and the rent is then paid in installments during the next two years, this is equivalent to a 25% increase in rent. Given that already before the current crisis many households had a rental burden of 30–40%, the installment payments of rental debt will make the total burden rise to 40–50%. The burden can be even larger, given that the incomes are likely to return only slowly to their pre-crisis levels. This is an extremely high level meaning that the stricter tenant protection will have to remain in place much longer than 3–6 months expected now. This view is corroborated by different legislative intiatives being under discussion. For example, in California, the Democrats put forward a rent relief bil.¹⁷ It allows the tenants who suffered from income losses during the COVID-19 pandemic to start repaying their rental debt in 2024 and to do it until 2034. In return, during the same period, landlords would obtain tax credits equal to the amount of unpaid rent. Overall, rent control regulations are the most difficult to be removed even in normal conditions (Konstantin A. Kholodilin 2018).

The mortgage relief is similar to the eviction bans for tenants. In this case, the homeowners are protected from being evicted from their houses by banks for mortgage non-payments. It is also an income redistribution from banks to homeowners. Similarly to the afore mentioned protection of tenants, it comes often at a zero cost to the government and is, therefore, more likely to be implemented.

The rent subsidies are the least damaging measure. They do not distort the price setting in the market. They also imply an income redistribution, but this redistribution is in a way fairer, since it channels the money from the least affected taxpayers to the most affected ones. However, they are very costly and impose an additional burden on the government budget. Nevertheless, solutions can be found in order to guarantee at least partial return of the governmental money spent. For example, in Germany, several experts suggest creation of a special fund that would either buy the rent directly from the landlords or grant interest-free loans to tenants and property owners.¹⁸ After the emergency is over, the fund will negotiate with tenants the repayment of their rental debts. A big advantage of such a fund is that by keeping the rental revenue flow intact it diminishes the financial strains of the landlords and, thus, reduces their need for mortgage releases. The best policy response to the housing market troubles should take advantage of a combination of individual measures. For example, rent subsidies should be coupled with mortgage releases and protection from eviction. Needless to say, the housing market measures are to be coordinated with the overall relief policies applied to the whole economy. For example, governmental support of persons, who suffered large financial losses due to the pandemic, will have repercussions for the housing market, since it will alleviate some of the financial problems of its participants. Thus, less subsidies will be needed to support tenants, homeowners, or landlords.

Furthermore, it is important to use a differentiated approach, as some countries do already. First, the means proof is necessary, when deciding to which tenants or homeowners the aid is to be provided. Second, a distinction between different groups of landlords is needed. In particular, the small (“mom-and-pop”) landlords are to be distinguished from the large ones. The former are known to be more indulgent with respect to their tenants and trying to work with them in order to find an acceptable solution without going to extremes of immediate eviction (Balzarini and Boyd 2020). They are also more dependent on their rental revenues and often less obsessed with profit maximization than the large firms renting out many properties (Garboden and Rosen 2018; Immergluck et al. 2020).

References

Balzarini, John, and Melody L Boyd. 2020. “Working with Them: Small-Scale Landlord Strategies for Avoiding Evictions.” Housing Policy Debate, 1–21.

Cowin, Rebecca, Hal Martin, and Clare Stevens. 2020. “Measuring Evictions During the COVID-19 Crisis.” Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland. https://www.clevelandfed.org/en/newsroom-and-events/publications/community-development-briefs/db-20200717-measuring-evictions-during-the-covid-19-crisis.aspx.

Gaffney, Edward, and Darren Greany. 2020. “COVID-19 Payment Breaks on Residential Mortgages.” Central Bank of Ireland - Financial Stability Notes.

Garboden, Philip ME, and Eva Rosen. 2018. “Talking to Landlords.” Cityscape 20 (3): 281–91.

Immergluck, Dan, Jeff Ernsthausen, Stephanie Earl, and Allison Powell. 2020. “Evictions, Large Owners, and Serial Filings: Findings from Atlanta.” Housing Studies 35 (5): 903–24.

Kholodilin, Konstantin A. 2018. “Measuring Stick-Style Housing Policies: A Multi-Country Longitudinal Database of Governmental Regulations.” DIW Berlin Discussion Paper 1727. https://www.diw.de/de/diw_01.c.580639.de/publikationen/diskussionspapiere/2018_1727/measuring_stick-style_housing_policies__a_multi-country_longitudinal_database_of_governmental_regulations.html.

Kholodilin, Konstantin A. 2020. “Housing Policy During COVID-19 Crisis: Challenges and Solutions.” DIW focus. https://www.diw.de/de/diw_01.c.758176.de/publikationen/diw_focus/2020_0002/housing_policies_worldwide_during_coronavirus_crisis__challenges_and_solutions.html.

Kholodilin, Konstantin, Jan Philip Weber, and Steffen Sebastian. 2018. “Rental Market Regulation over the Last 100 Years in an International Comparison.” DIW Weekly Report 8 (45): 453–64. https://www.diw.de/en/diw_01.c.606643.en/nachrichten/rental_market_regulation_ov...nternational_comparison.html.

Simons, Harald, Reiner Braun, and Ludger Baba. 2020. “Mieterschutz in Zeiten von Corona.” empirica-Paper Nr. 254. https://www.empirica-institut.de/fileadmin/Redaktion/Publikationen_Referenzen/PDFs/empi254hsrblb.pdf.

Voigtländer, Michael. 2020. “Kündigungsschutz-Klausel: Es drohen Domino-Effekte.” IW-Nachricht. https://www.iwkoeln.de/presse/iw-nachrichten/beitrag/michael-voigtlaender-es-drohen-domino-effekte.html.

---

1. An earlier version of this study was published as Konstantin A. Kholodilin (2020). The author would like to thank Jose Miguel Catalayud, Alejandro Jacobo, Aleksandar R. Miletic, and Conor O`Toole for their kind adivice as well as the participants of a housing policy survey conducted by the Union for the Mediterranean in April 2020. The results of this study were presented on 29th of April, 2020 at the Online Meeting “Emergency Housing Responses to the Covid-19 in the Euro-Mediterranean Region” of the Union for the Mediterranean and on May 14, 2020 at “Virtual Policy Roundtable on Housing Policy Responses to the Covid-19 Crisis” of the OECD.↩︎

2. Konstantin A. Kholodilin (2018) and K. Kholodilin, Weber, and Sebastian (2018).↩︎

3. The measures of arrears are defined in a different manner. For Canada, the monthly time series on mortgage delinquencies, which covers the period between January 1990 and May 2021, is defined as percentage of mortgages in arrears (i.e., three or more months) to the total number of mortgages. For Chile, the mortgage delinquency (morosidad hipotecaria) is computed as a share of deferred mortgages with payment delays of 90 days or more. The data are available from January 2009 to June 2021. For Ireland, it is the percentage of loan accounts in arrears for more than 90 days calculated either in terms of euros or in terms of quantities and cover the period from the 3rd quarter 2009 till the 4th quarter 2020. For Russia, the share of mortgage arrears is available between the 1st quarter 2006 and August 2021. The indicator for Spain (tasa de morosidad de prestamos hipotecarios, or tasa de creditos dudosos) covers the period between 2007q1 and 2021q1. For the UK, mortgage arrears are measured as a share of all arrears of over 2.5% of balance in the total number of mortgages outstanding and are available for 2014q1–2021q1.↩︎

4. According to the 2017 American Housing Survey, there are nearly 44 million occupied rental apartments in the US; https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/ahs/data/interactive/ahstablecreator.html?s_areas=00000&s_year=2017&s_tablename=TABLE1&s_bygroup1=2&s_bygroup2=1&s_filtergroup1=1&s_filtergroup2=1.↩︎

5. U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Personal Saving Rate [PSAVERT], retrieved from FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis; https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/PSAVERT, August 30, 2020.↩︎

6. See for Albania: UfM Survey; for Algeria: UfM Survey; for Angola: Decreto Presidencial n.º 82/20 de 26 de Março - Medidas de excepção e temporárias para a prevenção e o controlo da propagação da pandemia Covid-19; for Argentina: DECNU-2020-319-APN-PTE – Hipotecas, Boletín oficial de la República Argentina; for Australia: Richard Whitten (14th of April 2020) Coronavirus mortgage relief and repayment help (https://www.finder.com.au/mortgage-assistance-coronavirus); for Austria: 4. COVID-19 Gesetz, BGBl. I Nr. 24/2020; for Belgium: Mathilde Ridole (19th of March 2020) Les banques autorisent le report de remboursement des crédits hypothécaires, L’echo (https://www.lecho.be/dossiers/coronavirus/les-banques-autorisent-le-report-de-remboursement-des-credits-hypothecaires/10215631.html); for Bolivia: Ley 1294: Ley excepcional de diferimiento de pagos de créditos y reducción temporal del pago de servicios básicos; for Bosnia and Herzegovina: UfM meeting: Loan payments frozen for 3 months; for Brazil: AgênciaBrasil (16th of March 2020) CMN adota medidas para apoiar empresas e famílias contra Covid-19 (https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/economia/noticia/2020-03/cmn-adota-medidas-para-apoiar-empresas-e-familias-contra-covid-19); for Bulgaria: Financial Intelligence (10th of April 2020) Covid-19: Clubul țărilor care adoptă moratorii la plata creditelor se lărgește (https://financialintelligence.ro/covid-19-clubul-tarilor-care-adopta-moratorii-la-plata-creditelor-se-largeste/); for Cabo Verde: Lei n.º 83/IX/2020, de 4 de abril - estabelece as medidas excecionais e temporárias de resposta à situação epidemiológica provocada pelo coronavírus SARS-Cov-2 e da doença COVID-19, Boletim oficial no. 44; for Canada: Government of Canada (2020) Canada’s COVID-19 Economic Response Plan (https://www.canada.ca/en/department-finance/economic-response-plan.html); for Chile: Anonymous (6th of July 2020) Gobierno explica medidas en vivienda: qué pasará con los dividendos y arriendos (https://www.24horas.cl/coronavirus/gobierno-explica-medidas-en-vivienda-que-pasara-con-los-creditos-hipotecarios-y-arriendos-4307283); for Colombia: Tikitakas (27th of March 2020) Bancos congelan créditos en Colombia por el coronavirus (https://colombia.as.com/colombia/2020/03/27/tikitakas/1585345524_097945.html); for Costa Rica: Juan Enrique Soto Sibaja (14th of June 2020) Presidente del Congreso asegura que proyecto sobre moratoria de créditos podría votarse en próximas semanas (https://monumental.co.cr/2020/06/14/presidente-del-congreso-asegura-que-proyecto-sobre-moratoria-de-creditos-podria-votarse-en-proximas-semanas/); for Croatia: Anonymous (17th of March 2020) Vlada donosi paket mjera: Bez ovrha, deložacija, 63 mjere za gospodarstvo, pokrenuli web stranicu za informiranje (https://radio-mreznica.hr/vlada-donosi-paket-mjera-bez-ovrha-delozacija-63-mjere-za-gospodarstvo/); for Cyprus: UfM Survey: Suspension of installments, for all debtors from 1st of March 2020 to 31st of December 2020; for Czechia: Zákon o některých opatřeních ke zmírnění dopadů epidemie koronaviru SARS CoV-2 na nájemce prostor sloužících k uspokojování bytové potřeby, na příjemce úvěru poskytnutého Státním fondem rozvoje bydlení a v souvislosti s poskytováním plnění spojených s užíváním bytů a nebytových prostorů v domě s byty [Act on Certain Measures to Mitigate the Impacts of the SARS CoV-2 Coronavirus Epidemic on Tenants of Housing Needs, Recipients of a Loan Provided by the State Housing Development Fund and in connection with the provision of services related to the use of flats and non-residential premises in a dwelling house], 209/2020, Sbírka zákonů Česká republika, Částka 74, 2020; for Germany: Gesetz zur Abmilderung der Folgen der COVID-19-Pandemie im Zivil-, Insolvenz- und Strafverfahrensrecht, BGBl, 569; for Greece: Measures to treat COVID-19 corona pandemic and other urgent provisions [Μέτρα αντιμετώπισης της πανδημίας του κορωνοϊού COVID-19 και άλλες κατεπείγουσες διατάξεις], ΦΕΚ Α’ 75/30-03-2020; for Hungary: A Kormány 47/2020. (III. 18.) Korm. rendelete a koronavírus világjárvány nemzetgazdaságot érintő hatásának enyhítése érdekében szükséges azonnali intézkedésekről [Government Decree 47/2020. (III. 18.) on immediate measures to mitigate the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on the national economy], Magyar Közlöny 2020. évi 47. szám; for Ireland: Joe Brennan und Harry McGee (18th of March 2020) Coronavirus: Banks agree mortgage breaks and repossession deferrals, The Irish Times (https://www.irishtimes.com/business/financial-services/coronavirus-banks-agree-mortgage-breaks-and-repossession-deferrals-1.4205750); for Israel: UfM Survey: Those who encounter difficulties in payment of mortgages receive grace in the form of repayment of loans from state funds and funds from banks for three to 4 months.; for Italy: Nicoletta Cottone (23rd of March 2020) Coronavirus, scopri come difenderti dalla sospensione del mutuo prima casa alle gar-anzie per le imprese, Il Sole 24 ore (https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/coronavirus-sospensione-mutui-garanzie-le-pmi-misure-sostegno-liquidita-AD9YtKF); for Jamaica: Venice Williams-Gordon (8th of April 2020) COVID-19: Landlords, tenants and mortgagors (http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/business/COVID-19:_Landlords,_tenants_and_mortgagors?profile=0); for Kazakhstan: Постановление Правления Агентства Республики Казахстан по регулированию и развитию финансового рынка от 22 марта 2020 года № 17 “О мерах поддержки населения и субъектов предпринимательства в период чрезвычайного положения” [On measures to support the population and business entities during a state of emergency], зарегистрировано в Министерстве юстиции Республики Казахстан 23 марта 2020 года № 20158; for Lebanon: UfM Survey: A law to postpone the Credits for the Mid and Low incomes for 6 months. 52% households have problems with paying rents.; for Lithuania: Lietuvos Respublikos su nekilnojamuoju turtu susijusio kredito įstatymo Nr. XII-2769 22 straipsnio pakeitimo įstatymas (2020-03-17 Nr. XIII-2815, TAR, 2020-03-18, kodas 2020-05695, įsigalioja 2020-03-19); for Luxembourg: RTL (28th of March 2020) Housing support adapted to pay cuts (https://today.rtl.lu/news/luxembourg/a/1491770.html); for Malaysia: Martin Carvalho (28th of June 2020) Finance Minister: Govt to discuss with banks extension of six-month loan moratorium (https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2020/06/28/finance-minister-govt-to-discuss-with-banks-extension-of-six-month-loan-moratorium); for Maldives: Anonymous (14th of April 2020) COVID-19 - Economic Relief Package Details (https://www.crowe.com/mv/insights/covid-19/covid-19-economic-relief-package-details); for Malta: UfM meeting: major banks enabled moratoriums on loan payments.; for Mexico: Infonavit cubrirá pagos de hipotecas y apoyos a PyMes por contingencia COVID-19 (https://heraldodemexico.com.mx/pais/infonavit-cubrira-pagos-hipotecas-apoyos-pymes-contingencia-covid-19/); for Morocco: UfM meeting: moratorium on loans; for Namibia: Bank of Namibia: Determination on policy changes in response to economic and financial stability challenges, following the fallout of the Covid-19 Pandemic: Banking Institutions Act 1998, as amended, Government Gazette of the Republic of Namibia, 1st of April 2020, No. 7166 (https://www.bon.com.na/getattachment/8dda8f65-988e-4a7a-ae54-c3e5b832c26e/.aspx); for Norway: Government of Norway (26th of March 2020) Temporary changes in the mortgage regulation (https://www.regjeringen.no/en/aktuelt/temporary-changes-in-the-mortgage-regulation/id2694589/); for Oman: Government of Oman (8th of April 2020) Covid-19: OCCI calls for rent reduction (https://timesofoman.com/article/3013561/oman/government/covid-19-occi-calls-for-rent-reduction), Staff Writer (21st of June 2020) Rent reduction, exemption to lessen corona impact in Oman (https://www.zawya.com/mena/en/business/story/Rent_reduction_exemption_to_lessen_corona_impact_in_Oman-SNG_177597840/); for Panama: Alma Solís (4th of May 2020) Gobierno de Panamá anuncia moratoria bancaria hasta el 31 de diciembre de 2020 (https://forbescentroamerica.com/2020/05/04/gobierno-de-panama-anuncia-moratoria-bancaria-hasta-el-31-de-diciembre-de-2020/) and Gustavo A. Aparicio O. (18th of June 2020) Pleno aprueba moratoria; aplica a bancos, financieras y cooperativas (https://www.laestrella.com.pa/nacional/politica/200618/pleno-aprueba-moratoria-aplica-bancos); for Papua New Guinea: Bank of Papua New Guinea (30th of March 2020) Public Notice – Policy Response to the Impact of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) (https://www.bankpng.gov.pg/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/20200331-Policy-Response-on-Impact-of-Corona-Virus4-full-page.pdf); for Paraguay: Anonymous (20th of March 2020) Bancos prorrogan por tres meses el pago de deudas (https://www.abc.com.py/edicion-impresa/economia/2020/03/20/bancos-prorrogan-por-tres-meses-el-pago-de-deudas/); for Philippines: Republic Act no. 11469 — an act declaring the existence of a national emergency arising from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) situation and a national policy in connection therewith, and authorizing the president of the Republic of the Philippines for a limited period and subject to restrictions, to exercise powers necessary and proper to carry out the declared national policy and for other purposes (Bayanihan to Heal as One Act); for Poland: Mintos (30th of April 2020) Moratorium for borrowers: international overview by Mintos (updated) (https://blog.mintos.com/moratorium-for-borrowers-international-overview-by-mintos/); for Portugal: Lei n.º 4-C/2020, de 6 de abril – Regime excecional para as situações de mora no pagamento da renda devida nos termos de contratos de arrendamento urbano habitacional e não habitacional, no âmbito da pandemia COVID-19; for Puerto Rico: Anonymous (15th of April 2020) Gobernadora Puerto Rico aprueba moratoria pagos préstamos por 4 meses por COVID-19 (https://www.efe.com/efe/usa/puerto-rico/gobernadora-puerto-rico-aprueba-moratoria-pagos-prestamos-por-4-meses-covid-19/50000110-4222375); for Romania: Ordonanța de urgență nr. 37/2020 privind acordarea unor facilități pentru creditele acordate de instituții de credit și instituții financiare nebancare anumitor categorii de debitori, Monitorul Oficial nr. 261 din 30 martie 2020; for Russia: «О внесении изменений в Федеральный закон «О Центральном банке Российской Федерации (Банке России)» и отдельные законодательные акты Российской Федерации в части особенностей изменения условий кредитного договора, договора займа»; for Salvador: Government of El Salvador (25th of March 2020) Comunicado Oficial (https://www.presidencia.gob.sv/comunicado-oficial-4/) and Redacción UH (6th of June 2020) Gobierno suspende el pago de las cuotas de préstamos de vivienda por tres meses (https://ultimahora.sv/gobierno-suspende-el-pago-de-las-cuotas-de-prestamos-de-vivienda-por-tres-meses/); for San Marino: IMF (2020) Policy responses to COVID-19 (http://web.archive.org/web/20200409122524/https://www.imf.org/en/Topics/imf-and-covid19/Policy-Responses-to-COVID-19); for Singapore: Monetary Authority of Singapore (2020) Frequently asked questions on repayment deferment for residential property loans for individuals (https://www.mas.gov.sg/-/media/MAS/resource/covid-19/FAQs-on-Repayment-Deferment-Resi-Property-Loans-for-Individuals.pdf); for Slovakia: Zákon o niektorých mimoriadnych opatreniach v súvislosti so šírením nebezpečnej nákazlivej ľudskej choroby COVID-19 a v justícii a ktorým sa menia a dopĺňajú niektoré zákony [Act on Certain Extraordinary Measures in Relation to the Spread of Dangerous Infectious Human Disease COVID-19 and in the Judiciary and Amending Certain Acts]; for Slovenia: Zakon o interventnem ukrepu odloga plačila obveznosti kreditojemalcev (ZIUOPOK), UL št. 36, 28. 3. 2020; for Spain: Real Decreto-ley 8/2020, de 17 de marzo, de medidas urgentes extraordinarias para hacer frente al impacto económico y social del COVID-19, BOE núm. 73 de 18 de Marzo de 2020; for Sweden: European Mortgage Federation – European Covered Bond Council (EMF-ECBC) (2020) Measures taken in relation to mortgages as consequence of COVID-19 crisis; for Trinidad and Tobago: Darlisa Ghouralal (18th of March) Economic relief from COVID-19: Gov’t announces mortgage, loan deferral (https://www.looptt.com/content/economic-relief-covid-19-govt-announces-mortgage-loan-deferral); for Tunisia: UfM Survey; for UAE: KPMG (2020) United Arab Emirates - Government and institution measures in response to COVID-19 (https://home.kpmg/xx/en/home/insights/2020/04/united-arab-emirates-government-and-institution-measures-in-response-to-covid.html); for Uganda: Bernard Katureebe, Emily Gakiza, Birungi Kaburara Mugisha, Lydia Kahuga (2020) New COVID 19 Relief M easures by the Bank of Uganda on Credit and Restructuring of Loans (http://www.covidresponse.ortusafrica.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/COVID-19-BOU-Relief-Measures-on-Credit-and-Restructuring-of-Loans.pdf); for Ukraine: Про внесення змін до деяких законодавчих актів України, спрямованих на запобігання виникненню і поширенню коронавірусної хвороби (COVID-19) [On Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of Ukraine Aimed at Preventing the Occurrence and Spread of Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)]; for United Kingdom: Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government and The Rt Hon Robert Jenrick MP (18th of March 2020) Complete ban on evictions and additional protection for renters.; for Uruguay: Anonymous (6th of May 2020) El impacto del coronavirus en Uruguay: qué medidas se han tomado (https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/el-impacto-del-coronavirus-en-uruguay-que-medidas-se-han-tomado-hasta-el-momento--2020314164546); for USA: Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act (CARES Act); for Venezuela: Anonymous (2nd of April 2020) En Venezuela suspenden cobro de créditos hipotecarios en medio de la lucha contra el coronavirus (https://www.vtv.gob.ve/venezuela-suspension-cobro-creditos-hipotecarios-coronavirus/); for Zimbabwe: Presidential Powers (Temporary Measures) (Deferral of Rent and Mortgage Payments During National Lockdown) Regulations, Statutory Instrument 96 of 2020.↩︎

7. See for Albania: UfM Survey; for Algeria: UfM Survey; for Angola: Decreto Presidencial n.º 82/20 de 26 de Março - Medidas de excepção e temporárias para a prevenção e o controlo da propagação da pandemia Covid-19; for Argentina: DECNU-2020-320-APN-PTE – Alquileres, Boletín oficial de la República Argentina; for Australia: COVID-19 Disease Emergency (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2020, COVID-19 Omnibus (Emergency Measures) Act 2020, No. 11 of 2020, Residential Tenancies and Rooming Accommodation (COVID-19 Emergency Response) Regulation 2020, Subordinate Legislation 2020 No. 57, COVID-19 Emergency Response Bill 2020, Residential Tenancies Amendment (COVID-19) Regulation 2020, Residential Tenancies (COVID-19 Response) Act 2020, Residential Tenancies (COVID-19 Emergency Response) Declaration 2020; for Austria: 4. COVID-19 Gesetz, BGBl. I Nr. 24/2020; for Belgium: Arrêté du Ministre-Président de la Région de Bruxelles-Capitale interdisant les expulsions domiciliaires; Arrêté du Gouvernement wallon de pouvoirs spéciaux n° 4 du 18 mars 2020 suspendant temporairement l’exécution des décisions d’expulsions administratives et judiciaires; Besluit van de Vlaamse Regering houdende maatregelen voor de private en sociale huurmarkt ten gevolge van de maatregelen genomen door de Nationale Veiligheidsraad vanaf 12 maart 2020 inzake het coronavirus; for Bolivia: Ley Nº 1342 de 27 de Agosto de 2020 - Ley Excepcional de Arrendamientos (Alquileres); for Cabo Verde: Lei n.º 83/IX/2020, de 4 de abril - estabelece as medidas excecionais e temporárias de resposta à situação epidemiológica provocada pelo coronavírus SARS-Cov-2 e da doença COVID-19, Boletim oficial no. 44; for Canada: Arrêté No. 2020-005 de la ministre de la Santé et des Services sociaux en date du 17 mars 2020 (https://cdn-contenu.quebec.ca/cdn-contenu/adm/min/sante-services-sociaux/publications-adm/lois-reglements/AM_numero_2020-005.pdf?1584487700 ) and Government of Ontario: Ontario Protecting Critical Front-Line Justice Services in Response to COVID-19, Newsroom (https://news.ontario.ca/mag/en/2020/03/ontario-taking-action-to-protect-critical-front-line-justice-services-in-response-to-covid-19.html); for Colombia: Decreto 579 del 15 de abril de 2020 por el cual se adoptan medidas transitorias en materia de propiedad horizontal y contratos de arrendamiento, en el marco del Estado de Emergencia Económica, Social y Ecológica; for Costa Rica: Ley especial de moratoria total excepcional de pago de arrendamientos y subarrendamientos de vivienda y locales comerciales por emergencia nacional del Covid 19; for Cyprus: Bill to suspend proceedings and enforce any eviction decision or decree for non-payment by May 31, 2020 [νομοσχέδιο για αναστολή των διαδικασιών και της εκτέλεσης οποιασδήποτε απόφασης ή διατάγματος έξωσης λόγω μη καταβολής ενοικίου, μέχρι την 31η Μαΐου 2020]; for Czechia: Zákon o některých opatřeních ke zmírnění dopadů epidemie koronaviru SARS CoV-2 na nájemce prostor sloužících k uspokojování bytové potřeby, na příjemce úvěru poskytnutého Státním fondem rozvoje bydlení a v souvislosti s poskytováním plnění spojených s užíváním bytů a nebytových prostorů v domě s byty [Act on Certain Measures to Mitigate the Impacts of the SARS CoV-2 Coronavirus Epidemic on Tenants of Housing Needs, Recipients of a Loan Provided by the State Housing Development Fund and in connection with the provision of services related to the use of flats and non-residential premises in a dwelling house], 209/2020, Sbírka zákonů Česká republika, Částka 74, 2020; for Dem. Rep. of the Congo: La Rédaction (30th of April 2020) COVID-19 et baux immobiliers en RDC : un locataire peut-il légalement arrêter de payer son loyer ? (https://www.politico.cd/grand-angle/2020/04/30/covid-19-et-baux-immobiliers-en-rdc-un-locataire-peut-il-legalement-arreter-de-payer-son-loyer.html/59550/); for Ecuador: Ley orgánica de apoyo humanitario para combatir la crisis sanitaria derivada del COVID 19; for Ethiopia: Anonymous (29th of March 2020) Tigray State Orders Cafes, Restaurants Closure (https://addisfortune.news/news-alert/tigray-state-orders-cafes-restaurants-closure/); for Gabon: Décret n°00107/PR/MEF du 10 avril 2020 portant interdiction générale d’expulsion des locataires pendant la durée de l’état d’urgence lié au COVID-19; for Germany: Gesetz zur Abmilderung der Folgen der COVID-19-Pandemie im Zivil-, Insolvenz- und Strafverfahrensrecht, BGBl, 569; for India: MHA Order No. 40-3/2020-DM-I(A) of 29th of March 2020 restricting movement of migrants and strict enforement of lockdown measures and Anonymous (17th of April 2020) Covid-19 lockdown: Maharashtra tells landlords to defer rent collection by at least three months (https://scroll.in/latest/959504/covid-19-lockdown-maharashtra-tells-landlords-to-defer-rent-collection-by-at-least-three-months); for Ireland: Emergency Measures in the Public Interest (Covid-19) Act 2020 (Act 2 of 2020); for Israel: UfM Survey: The Law Enforcement and Collection System Authority of the state of Israel froze the enforcement of court rulings of evacuation from all apartments (public and private).; for Italy: Decreto-legge 17 marzo 2020, n. 18 Misure di potenziamento del Servizio sanitario nazionale e di sostegno economico per famiglie, lavoratori e imprese connesse all’emergenza epidemiologica da COVID-19, GU Serie Generale n.70 del 17-03-2020; for Ivory Coast: Ordonnance n° 2020-386 du 15 avril 2020 portant suspension des procédures d’expulsion des locataires et de la révision à la hausse du loyer des baux d’habitation; for Luxembourg: Règlement grand-ducal du 25 mars 2020 portant suspension des délais en matière juridictionnelle et adaptation temporaire de certaines autres modalités procédurales; for Maldives: Anonymous (6th of May 2020) Parliament Secretariat rejects rent moratorium bill, requests amended version (https://edition.mv/news/16562); for Mexico: Decreto No. 54 mediante el cual se reforma el artículo 1986 del Código Civil para el Estado de Baja California. H.XXIII Legislatura constitucional del Estado de Baja California; for Morocco: Anonymous (6th of May 2020) Loyers impayés pendant le confinement: ce que propose le PJD (https://www.medias24.com/loyers-impayes-pendant-le-confinement-ce-que-propose-le-pjd-10071.html); for Nepal: Anonymous (1st of August 2020) Lockdown relief for tenants in Nepal (https://southasiamonitor.org/nepal/lockdown-relief-tenants-nepal); for Netherlands: Rijksoverheid (26th of March 2020) Geen huisuitzettingen en verlenging tijdelijke huurcontracten (https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/actueel/nieuws/2020/03/26/geen-huisuitzettingen-en-verlenging-tijdelijke-huurcontracten); for New Zealand: COVID-19 Response (Urgent Management Measures) Amendment Act; for Pakistan: Hasnaat Maik (8th of April 2020) Tenants likely to get two-month reprieve from Sindh govt amid COVID-19 crisis (https://tribune.com.pk/story/2193584/1-sindh-likely-give-exemptions-tenants-payment-two-months-rent/) and Shahab Omer (13th of April 2020) Punjab govt bars eviction of tenants for two months (https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2020/04/13/punjab-govt-announces-relief-for-tenants-on-rent/); for Panama: Decreto Ejecutivo N° 145 de 1 de mayo de 2020 que dicta medidas sobre los arrendamientos, procesos de lanzamiento y desalojo, y se dictan otras medidas, Gaceta oficial N° 29015; for Paraguay: Ley N° 6524 que declara estado de emergencia en todo el territorio de la república del Paraguay ante la pandemia declarada por la Organización Mundial de la Salud a causa del Covid-19 o coronavirus y se establecen medidas administrativas, fiscales y financieras; for Peru: Proyecto de Ley 5004/2020-CR que dispone medidas complementarias a favor de los arrendatarios que se encuentren en situación de vulnerabilidad económica como consecuencia de la declaratoria de estado de emergencia por el brote de Covid-19; for Philippines: Republic Act No. 11469 — an act declaring the existence of a national emergency arising from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) situation and a national policy in connection therewith, and authorizing the president of the Republic of the Philippines for a limited period and subject to restrictions, to exercise powers necessary and proper to carry out the declared national policy and for other purposes (Bayanihan to Heal as One Act); for Portugal: Lei n.º 1-A/2020 – Medidas excecionais e temporárias de resposta à situação epidemiológica provocada pelo coronavírus SARS-CoV-2 e da doença COVID-19, Diário da República n.º 56/2020, 3º Suplemento, Série I de 2020-03-19; for Salvador: Government of El Salvador (25th of March 2020) Comunicado Oficial (https://www.presidencia.gob.sv/comunicado-oficial-4/); for Singapore: COVID-19 (Temporary Measures) Act of 2020 (Act 14 of 2020); for Slovakia: Zákon o niektorých mimoriadnych opatreniach v súvislosti so šírením nebezpečnej nákazlivej ľudskej choroby COVID-19 a v justícii a ktorým sa menia a dopĺňajú niektoré zákony [Act on Certain Extraordinary Measures in Relation to the Spread of Dangerous Infectious Human Disease COVID-19 and in the Judiciary and Amending Certain Acts]; for South Africa: Directions issued in terms of regulation 10 of the regulations under the Disaster Management Act, 2002, Regulation Gazette No. 11066, Vol. 657 26; for Spain: Real Decreto-ley 11/2020, de 31 de marzo, por el que se adoptan medidas urgentes complementarias en el ámbito social y económico para hacer frente al COVID-19, «BOE» núm. 91, de 1 de abril de 2020, páginas 27885 a 27972; for Switzerland: COVID-19-Verordnung Miete und Pacht; for Tunisia: UfM Survey; for UAE: Alice Haine (24th of March 2020) Abu Dhabi and Dubai governments block tenant evictions during the pandemic (https://www.thenational.ae/business/money/abu-dhabi-and-dubai-governments-block-tenant-evictions-during-the-pandemic-1.996864) and Alice Haine (5th of April 2020) Sharjah government urges property owners to delay rents for tenants (https://www.thenational.ae/business/money/sharjah-government-urges-property-owners-to-delay-rents-for-tenants-1.1001913); for Uganda: Dan Dhikusooka (22nd of April 2020) Museveni asks police to block landlords evicting tenants during this Covid-19 crisis (https://www.nbsgroupuganda.com/museveni-asks-police-to-block-landlords-evicting-tenants-during-this-covid-19-crisis/); for Ukraine: Про внесення змін до деяких законодавчих актів України, спрямованих на запобігання виникненню і поширенню коронавірусної хвороби (COVID-19) [On Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of Ukraine Aimed at Preventing the Occurrence and Spread of Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)]; for United Kingdom: Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government and The Rt Hon Robert Jenrick MP (18th of March 2020) Complete ban on evictions and additional protection for renters.; for Uruguay: Anonymous (17th of May 2020) Funcionarios judiciales proponen proyecto que suspende los desalojos hasta fin de año (https://www.montevideo.com.uy/Noticias/Funcionarios-judiciales-proponen-proyecto-que-suspende-los-desalojos-hasta-fin-de-ano-uc753005); for USA: Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act (CARES Act); for Venezuela: Decreto Nº 4.169, por medio del cual se suspende el pago de los cánones de arrendamiento de inmuebles de uso comercial y de aquellos utilizados como vivienda principal; for Zimbabwe: Presidential Powers (Temporary Measures) (Deferral of Rent and Mortgage Payments During National Lockdown) Regulations, Statutory Instrument 96 of 2020.↩︎

8. In Brazil, both houses of parliament adopted protection from eviction in form of Projeto de lei 1179/2020, which was submitted on 13th of April 2020. However, on 10th of June 2020, the president vetoed the corresponding provisions of what became the Lei N?? 14.010, de 10 de junho de 2020 (http://www.in.gov.br/web/dou/-/lei-n-14.010-de-10-de-junho-de-2020-261279456).↩︎

9. See for Albania: UfM Survey; for Algeria: UfM Survey; for Argentina: DECNU-2020-320-APN-PTE – Alquileres, Boletín oficial de la República Argentina; for Australia: COVID-19 Disease Emergency (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2020, COVID-19 Omnibus (Emergency Measures) Act 2020, No. 11 of 2020, Residential Tenancies and Rooming Accommodation (COVID-19 Emergency Response) Regulation 2020, Subordinate Legislation 2020 No. 57, COVID-19 Emergency Response Bill 2020, Residential Tenancies Amendment (COVID-19) Regulation 2020, Residential Tenancies (COVID-19 Response) Act 2020, Residential Tenancies (COVID-19 Emergency Response) Declaration 2020; for Bolivia: Ley Nº 1342 de 27 de Agosto de 2020 - Ley Excepcional de Arrendamientos (Alquileres); for Canada: Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing of the British Columbia Government (25th of March 2020): Supporting renters, landlords during COVID-19 (https://news.gov.bc.ca/releases/2020MAH0048-000561); for Colombia: Decreto 579 del 15 de abril de 2020 por el cual se adoptan medidas transitorias en materia de propiedad horizontal y contratos de arrendamiento, en el marco del Estado de Emergencia Económica, Social y Ecológica; for Costa Rica: Ley especial de moratoria total excepcional de pago de arrendamientos y subarrendamientos de vivienda y locales comerciales por emergencia nacional del Covid 19; for Czechia: Nařízení vlády, kterým se stanoví cenové moratorium nájemného z bytů [Government decree establishing a price moratorium on rent from flats], 202/2020, Sbírka zákonů Česká republika, Částka 72, 2020; for Ecuador: Ley orgánica de apoyo humanitario para combatir la crisis sanitaria derivada del COVID 19; for Ethiopia: Anonymous (29th of March 2020) Tigray State Orders Cafes, Restaurants Closure (https://addisfortune.news/news-alert/tigray-state-orders-cafes-restaurants-closure/); for Gabon: Décret n°00102/PR/MEF du 10 avril 2020 fixant le régime de gratuité des loyers pour les personnes privées de revenus pendant la période de l’état d’urgence lié au COVID-19; for Greece: Legislative Act of 20.03.2020 Urgent measures to address the consequences of the spread of the COVID-19 coronavirus, to support society and entrepreneurship, and to ensure the smooth functioning of the market and public administration [Πράξη Νομοθετικού Περιεχομένου της 20.03.2020 Κατεπείγοντα μέτρα για την αντιμετώπιση των συνεπειών του κινδύνου διασποράς του κορωνοϊού COVID-19, τη στήριξη της κοινωνίας και της επιχειρηματικότητας και τη διασφάλιση της ομαλής λειτουργίας της αγοράς και της δημόσιας διοίκησης], ΦΕΚ Α’ 68/20-03-2020; for Guinea: Plan de riposte économique à la crise sanitaire COVID-19 du 2 d’avril 2020; for Ireland: Emergency Measures in the Public Interest (Covid-19) Act 2020 (Act 2 of 2020); for Ivory Coast: Ordonnance n° 2020-386 du 15 avril 2020 portant suspension des procédures d’expulsion des locataires et de la révision à la hausse du loyer des baux d’habitation; for Luxembourg: Règlement grand-ducal du 20 mai 2020 portant dérogation temporaire à l’article 3, paragraphe 5, de la loi modifiée du 21 septembre 2006 sur le bail à usage d’habitation et modifiant certaines dispositions du Code civil; for Nepal: Anonymous (30th of March 2020) These are the relief packages introduced by the government following extension of lockdown for another week, Kathmandu Post (https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/03/30/these-are-the-relief-packages-introduced-by-the-government-following-extension-of-lockdown-for-another-week); for New Zealand: COVID-19 Response (Urgent Management Measures) Amendment Act; for Oman: Oman Government (8th of April 2020) Covid-19: OCCI calls for rent reduction (https://timesofoman.com/article/3013561/oman/government/covid-19-occi-calls-for-rent-reduction); for Panama: Decreto Ejecutivo N° 145 de 1 de mayo de 2020 que dicta medidas sobre los arrendamientos, procesos de lanzamiento y desalojo, y se dictan otras medidas, Gaceta oficial N° 29015; for Spain: Real Decreto-ley 11/2020, de 31 de marzo, por el que se adoptan medidas urgentes complementarias en el ámbito social y económico para hacer frente al COVID-19, «BOE» núm. 91, de 1 de abril de 2020, páginas 27885 a 27972; for USA: NA; for Venezuela: Decreto Nº 4.169, por medio del cual se suspende el pago de los cánones de arrendamiento de inmuebles de uso comercial y de aquellos utilizados como vivienda principal.↩︎

10. See for Australia: COVID-19 Omnibus (Emergency Measures) Act 2020, No. 11 of 2020, Residential Tenancies and Rooming Accommodation (COVID-19 Emergency Response) Regulation 2020, Subordinate Legislation 2020 No. 57, COVID-19 Emergency Response Bill 2020, Residential Tenancies (COVID-19 Emergency Response) Declaration 2020; for Belgium: Arrêté du Gouvernement wallon visant la mise en place d’un crédit à taux zéro octroyé par la Société wallonne du Crédit Social et relatif au paiement du loyer, Moniteur belge, 13th of May 2020; for Bolivia: Ley Nº 1342 de 27 de Agosto de 2020 - Ley Excepcional de Arrendamientos (Alquileres); for Canada: Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing of the British Columbia Government (25th of March 2020): Supporting renters, landlords during COVID-19 (https://news.gov.bc.ca/releases/2020MAH0048-000561); for Chile: AS CHILE (6th of July 2020) Subsidio para arriendos en Chile: ¿cuánto aumenta el monto de la ayuda? (https://chile.as.com/chile/2020/07/06/actualidad/1594070954_364378.html); for Gabon: Décret n°00102/PR/MEF du 10 avril 2020 fixant le régime de gratuité des loyers pour les personnes privées de revenus pendant la période de l’état d’urgence lié au COVID-19; for Greece: Legislative Act of 20.03.2020 Urgent measures to address the consequences of the spread of the COVID-19 coronavirus, to support society and entrepreneurship, and to ensure the smooth functioning of the market and public administration [Πράξη Νομοθετικού Περιεχομένου της 20.03.2020 Κατεπείγοντα μέτρα για την αντιμετώπιση των συνεπειών του κινδύνου διασποράς του κορωνοϊού COVID-19, τη στήριξη της κοινωνίας και της επιχειρηματικότητας και τη διασφάλιση της ομαλής λειτουργίας της αγοράς και της δημόσιας διοίκησης], ΦΕΚ Α’ 68/20-03-2020; for India: Anonymous (30th of March 2020) Government to pay rent if tenants fail to do so: Delhi CM (https://realty.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/residential/government-to-pay-rent-if-tenants-fail-to-do-so-delhi-cm/74881255); for Ivory Coast: Ordonnance n° 2020-386 du 15 avril 2020 portant suspension des procédures d’expulsion des locataires et de la révision à la hausse du loyer des baux d’habitation; for Luxembourg: RTL (28th of March 2020) Housing support adapted to pay cuts (https://today.rtl.lu/news/luxembourg/a/1491770.html); for Malta: Julian Bonnici (24th of March 2020) COVID-19: Government Rental Scheme Extended To Residents And Self-Employed Who End Up Unemployed Or In A Zero-Income Scenario (https://lovinmalta.com/news/covid-19-government-rental-scheme-extended-to-residents-and-businesses-who-end-up-unemployed-or-in-a-zero-income-scenario/); for Nepal: Anonymous (30th of March 2020) These are the relief packages introduced by the government following extension of lockdown for another week, Kathmandu Post (https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/03/30/these-are-the-relief-packages-introduced-by-the-government-following-extension-of-lockdown-for-another-week); for Portugal: Lei n.º 4-C/2020, de 6 de abril – Regime excecional para as situações de mora no pagamento da renda devida nos termos de contratos de arrendamento urbano habitacional e não habitacional, no âmbito da pandemia COVID-19; for Romania: Lege nr. 62 din 20 mai 2020 privind aplicarea unor facilităţi de la plata chiriei pentru perioada aferentă stării de urgenţă [Law no. 62 of May 20, 2020 on the application of facilities for the payment of rent for the period related to the state of emergency], Monitorul oficial nr. 425/21 mai. 2020; for Singapore: COVID-19 (Temporary Measures) Act of 2020 (Act 14 of 2020); for Spain: Real Decreto-ley 11/2020, de 31 de marzo, por el que se adoptan medidas urgentes complementarias en el ámbito social y económico para hacer frente al COVID-19, «BOE» núm. 91, de 1 de abril de 2020, páginas 27885 a 27972; for Trinidad and Tobago: Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago (31st of March 2020) COVID-19 Social Assistance Guidelines and Applications (https://www.finance.gov.tt/2020/03/31/covid-19-social-assistance-guidelines-and-applications/); for Ukraine: Про внесення змін до деяких законодавчих актів України, спрямованих на запобігання виникненню і поширенню коронавірусної хвороби (COVID-19) [On Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of Ukraine Aimed at Preventing the Occurrence and Spread of Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)]; for Uruguay: Decreto N° 142/020 de 21/05/2020 - Fijacion de aporte estatal aplicable a alquileres de fincas con garantia de la CGN, cuyos beneficiarios son trabajadores privados amparados al subsidio por desempleo total; for USA: Tara O’Neill Hayes, Thomas Wade (14th of May 2020) Expanded Housing Assistance in the HEROES Act (https://www.americanactionforum.org/insight/expanded-housing-assistance-in-the-heroes-act/).↩︎

11. COVID-19 (Temporary Measures) Act (the “COVID-19 Act”) of 9th of April 2020, Republic of Singapore Government Gazette Acts Supplement 2020, No. 13.↩︎

12. Prokopis Hatzinikolaou (13th of May 2020) State to give support to landlords as well as tenants, Ekatimerini (https://www.ekathimerini.com/252690/article/ekathimerini/business/state-to-give-support-to-landlords-as-well-as-tenants)↩︎

13. For Australian Capital Territory: Residential Tenancies (COVID-19 Emergency Response) Declaration 2020; for New South Wales: Residential Tenancies Amendment (COVID-19) Regulation 2020; for Queensland: Residential Tenancies and Rooming Accommodation (COVID-19 Emergency Response) Regulation 2020, Subordinate Legislation 2020 No. 57; for South Australia: COVID-19 Emergency Response Bill 2020; for Tasmania: COVID-19 Disease Emergency (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2020; for Victoria: COVID-19 Omnibus (Emergency Measures) Act 2020, No. 11 of 2020; for Western Australia: Residential Tenancies (COVID-19 Response) Act 2020.↩︎

14. For Alberta: Daniel Austin (28th of March 2020) Alberta assures renters they won’t be evicted during COVID-19 crisis (https://calgaryherald.com/news/landlords-tenants-seek-solutions-as-rent-looms); for British Columbia: (25th of March 2020) Supporting renters, landlords during COVID-19, Updated April 22, 2020 (https://news.gov.bc.ca/releases/2020MAH0048-000561); for Manitoba: (24th of March 2020) Covid-19 Novel coronavirus, Information for Tenants (https://www.gov.mb.ca/asset_library/en/coronavirus/rtb_qa_tenants.pdf); for New Brunswick: (19 March 2020) REVISED / State of emergency declared in response to COVID-19 (https://www2.gnb.ca/content/gnb/en/news/news_release.2020.03.0139.html); for Newfoundland and Labrador: (26th of March 2020) Urgent Legislative Sitting Supports Social and Economic Well-Being of Newfoundlanders and Labradorians (https://www.gov.nl.ca/releases/2020/exec/0326n03/); for Northwest Territories: (14th of April 2020) New Regulations allow tenants to defer rental payments (https://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/en/2020/04/new-regulations-allows-tenants-to-defer-rental-payments/); for Nova Scotia: (19th of March 2020) Measures to Help Vulnerable Nova Scotians (https://novascotia.ca/news/release/?id=20200319004); for Ontario: (19th of March 2020) Ontario Protecting Critical Front-Line Justice Services in Response to COVID-19 (https://news.ontario.ca/mag/en/2020/03/ontario-taking-action-to-protect-critical-front-line-justice-services-in-response-to-covid-19.html); for Prince Edward Island: (2nd of April 2020) Province announces moratorium on evictions (https://www.princeedwardisland.ca/en/news/province-announces-moratorium-evictions); for Quebec: (28th of May 2020) Hearings resume on June 1, 2020 – Suspension upheld for information services in person (https://www.rdl.gouv.qc.ca/en); for Saskatchewan: (26th of March 2020) Evictions Suspended Due To COVID-19 (https://www.saskatchewan.ca/government/news-and-media/2020/march/26/evictions-suspended); for Yukon Territory: (26th of March 2020) Government of Yukon is making sure Yukoners have home security during COVID-19 (https://yukon.ca/en/news/government-yukon-making-sure-yukoners-have-home-security-during-covid-19).↩︎

15. For Alabama: Statement, Alabama Public Service Commission, March 17, 2020; Ninth Supplemental State of Emergency, Coronavirus (COVID-19), May 8, 2020; for Alaska: SB 241, Alaska State Legislature (http://www.akleg.gov/basis/Bill/Text/31?Hsid=SB0241Z); for Arizona: Arizona Executive Order 2020-14, March 24, 2020 (https://azgovernor.gov/sites/default/files/eo_2020-14_0.pdf); for California: California Executive Order N-28-20, March 16, 2020 (https://www.gov.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/3.16.20-Executive-Order.pdf); for Colorado: Colorado Executive Order D 2020 012, March 20, 2020 (https://drive.google.com/file/d/1mMCRLb6PxMPI680_THFn4nqLGAty1jq9/view); for Connecticut: Connecticut Executive Order No. 7X, April 10, 2020 (https://portal.ct.gov/-/media/Office-of-the-Governor/Executive-Orders/Lamont-Executive-Orders/Executive-Order-No-7X.pdf); for Delaware: Sixth Modification of State of Emergency Declaration, March 24, 2020 (https://governor.delaware.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/24/2020/03/Sixth-Modification-to-State-of-Emergency-03242020.pdf); for District of Columbia: D.C. Act 23-286. COVID-19 Response Supplemental Emergency Amendment Act of 2020 (https://code.dccouncil.us/dc/council/acts/23-286.html); for Florida: Florida Executive Order 20-94, April 2, 2020 (https://www.flgov.com/wp-content/uploads/orders/2020/EO_20-94.pdf); for Hawaii: Hawaii Department of Public Safety news release (17th of March 2020) Sheriff Division temporarily suspends eviction activities (https://governor.hawaii.gov/newsroom/latest-news/psd-news-release-sheriff-division-temporarily-suspends-eviction-activities/); for Idaho: Act relating to leases; amending section 55-307, idaho code, to provide that certain notice shall be given for nonrenewal of a lease or an increase in the amount of rent charged and to make technical corrections (https://legislature.idaho.gov/sessioninfo/2020/legislation/H0594/); for Illinois: COVID-19 Executive Order No. 8, March 20, 2020 (https://www2.illinois.gov/Pages/Executive-Orders/ExecutiveOrder2020-10.aspx); for Indiana: Indiana Executive Order 20-06, March 19, 2020 (https://www.in.gov/gov/files/EO_20-06.pdf); for Iowa: Proclamation of Disaster Emergency (Part 2), April 27, 2020 (https://governor.iowa.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Public%20Health%20Proclamation%20-%202020.04.27%20-%20Pt%202.pdf); for Kansas: Kansas Executive Order No. 20-10, March 23, 2020 (https://governor.kansas.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/EO-20-10-Executed.pdf); for Kentucky: Kentucky Executive Order 2020-257, March 25, 2020 (https://governor.ky.gov/attachments/20200325_Executive-Order_2020-257_Healthy-at-Home.pdf); for Louisiana: Louisiana Proclamation Number 59 JBE 2020, May 14, 2020 (https://gov.louisiana.gov/assets/Proclamations/2020/59-JBE-2020.pdf); for Maine: Maine Executive Order 40 FY 19/20, April 16, 2020 - An order regarding unlawful evictions, writs of possession and initiation of eviction proceedings (https://www.maine.gov/governor/mills/sites/maine.gov.governor.mills/files/inline-files/An%20Order%20Regarding%20Unlawful%20Evictions%2C%20Writs%20of%20Possession%2C%20and%20Initiation%20of%20Eviction%20Proceedings.pdf); for Maryland: Governor’s Order Temporarily Prohibiting Evictions, March 16, 2020 (https://governor.maryland.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Executive-Order-Temp-Evictions-Prohibiting.pdf); for Massachusetts: An act providing for a moratorium on evictions and foreclosures during the COVID-19 emergency (https://malegislature.gov/Laws/SessionLaws/Acts/2020/Chapter65); for Michigan: Executive Order 2020-85 (COVID-19) - Temporary prohibition against entry to premises for the purpose of removing or excluding a tenant or mobile home owner from their home, May 14, 2020 (https://www.michigan.gov/whitmer/0,9309,7-387-90499_90705-529459--,00.html); for Minnesota: Minnesota Emergency Executive Order 20-14, March 23, 2020 (https://mn.gov/governor/assets/EO%2020-14%20Filed_tcm1055-424508.pdf); for Mississippi: Mississippi Executive Order No. 1477, April 24, 2020 (https://www.sos.ms.gov/content/executiveorders/ExecutiveOrders/1477.pdf?mod=article_inline); for Montana: Directive Implementing Executive Orders 2-2020 and 3-2020, March 30, 2020 (https://governor.mt.gov/Portals/16/Evictions%20Foreclosures%20and%20Utilities.pdf?ver=2020-03-31-162653-427); for Nebraska: Nebraska Executive Order No. 20-07, March 25, 2020 (https://www.dropbox.com/s/kci7kheh31ffhfi/EO%2020-07%20-%20Temporary%20Residential%20Eviction%20Relief%20.pdf?dl=0); for Nevada: Declaration of Emergency Directive 008, March 29, 2020 (https://www.rosen.senate.gov/sites/default/files/2020-03/Declaration%20of%20Emergency%20Directive%20008%20re%20Evictions.3-29-20.pdf); for New Hampshire: New Hampshire Emergency Order #4 Pursuant to Executive Order 2020-04, March 17, 2020 - Landlords will not be allowed to start eviction proceedings for those unable to pay due to their financial situations. To do so would be against the law. All judicial and non-judicial foreclosure actions will also be prohibited during the state of emergency (https://www.governor.nh.gov/sites/g/files/ehbemt336/files/documents/emergency-order-4.pdf); for New Jersey: New Jersey Executive Order No. 106, March 19, 2020 (https://nj.gov/infobank/eo/056murphy/pdf/EO-106.pdf); for New Mexico: Order No. 20-8500-007, New Mexico Supreme Court, March 24, 2020 (https://nmcourts.gov/uploads/files/COVID-19/Order%20No_%2020-8500-007%20(Staying%20Execution%20of%20Writs%20of%20Restitution%20in%20Eviction%20Proceedings%203-24-20).pdf); for New York: New York Executive Order 202.28, May 7, 2020 (https://www.governor.ny.gov/sites/governor.ny.gov/files/atoms/files/EO202.28.pdf); for North Carolina: Order of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of North Carolina, April 2, 2020 (https://www.nccourts.gov/assets/news-uploads/2%20April%202020%20-%207A-39%28b%29%282%29%20Order%20%28Final%29.pdf?UqRJH9wO2z3oEU4GW3Eg9rxRuFvTlixn); for North Dakota: Amended Order 27, North Dakota Supreme Court, April 23, 2020 (https://www.ndcourts.gov/Media/Default/Users/mikeh/20200107_o_adoption_am.pdf); for Ohio: COVID-19 Guidance to Local Courts, Supreme Court of Ohio, March 20, 2020 (https://www.supremecourt.ohio.gov/coronavirus/resources/localCourtGuidance03.20.20.pdf); for Oregon: Oregon Executive Order 20-11 - temporary moratorium on residential evictions for nonpayment, in response to coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak, March 22, 2020 (https://www.oregon.gov/gov/Documents/executive_orders/eo_20-11.pdf) and Executive Order 20-13 – temporary moratorium on certain evictions and terminations of rental agreements and leases, in response to coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak (https://www.oregon.gov/gov/admin/Pages/eo_20-13.aspx); for Pennsylvania: Order for Staying the Notice Requirements for Certain Actions Related to the Dispossession of Property, Governor of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, May 7, 2020 (https://www.justia.com/covid-19/50-state-covid-19-resources/eviction-mortgage-foreclosure-relief-during-covid-19-50-state-resource/#alabama); for Rhode Island: Executive Order 2020-12, COVID-19 Pandemic Response – Continuity of Operations, Rhode Island Supreme Court, May 15, 2020 (https://www.courts.ri.gov/Courts/SupremeCourt/SupremeExecOrders/20-12.pdf); for South Carolina: Order, Supreme Court of South Carolina, April 30, 2020 (https://www.sccourts.org/whatsnew/displaywhatsnew.cfm?indexID=2491); for Tennessee: Order, In re: COVID-19 Pandemic, Supreme Court of Tennessee, April 24, 2020 (http://www.tncourts.gov/sites/default/files/docs/sct_covid-19_order_4-24-2020_2.pdf); for Texas: Fifteenth Emergency Order Regarding the COVID-19 State of Disaster, Supreme Court of Texas, May 14, 2020 (https://81db691e-8a8c-4e25-add9-60f4845e34f7.filesusr.com/ugd/64fb99_94a4b7a899094411811f5cdffd8aab25.pdf); for Utah: Utah Executive Order Suspending Eviction Proceedings, April 1, 2020 (https://drive.google.com/file/d/1DIvfcaMeSeUhfNmzr-3Cwo3DyZQZIO2l/view); for Vermont: An act relating to establishing a moratorium on ejectment and foreclosure actions during the COVID-19 emergency, 14th of May 2020 (https://legiscan.com/VT/bill/S0333/2019); for Virginia: An Act to amend the Code of Virginia by adding in Chapter 7 of Title 44 a section numbered 44-209, relating to emergency laws; civil relief; citizens of the Commonwealth furloughed or otherwise not receiving wages or payments due to closure of the federal government, 22nd of April 2020 (https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?201+ful+HB340ER); for Washington: Proclamation by the Governor 20-19.1, Evictions, April 16, 2020 (https://www.governor.wa.gov/sites/default/files/20-19.1%20-%20COVID-19%20Moratorium%20on%20Evictions%20Extension%20%28tmp%29.pdf?utm_medium=email&utm_source=govdelivery); for West Virginia: General Order No. 262, Public Service Commission of West Virginia, March 17, 2020 (http://www.psc.state.wv.us/scripts/WebDocket/ViewDocument.cfm?CaseActivityID=539709); for Wisconsin: Wisconsin Emergency Order #15, Temporary Ban on Eviction and Foreclosures, March 27, 2020 (https://evers.wi.gov/Documents/COVID19/EO15BanonEvictionsandForeclosures.pdf); for Wyoming: Order, Wyoming Supreme Court, May 15, 2020 (https://www.courts.state.wy.us/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/COVID-19-OrderThirdAmend-05.15.2020.pdf).↩︎

16. See Peter Hepburn, Renee Louis, and Matthew Desmond. Eviction Tracking System: Version 1.0. Princeton: Princeton University, 2020; https://evictionlab.org/eviction-tracking/get-the-data/.↩︎

17. Anonymous (22nd of June 2020) California Rent Relief Plan Would Give Tenants Until 2034 to Make Up Late Payments (https://www.greaterirvinechamber.com/news/latest-news/p/item/27819/california-rent-relief-plan-would-give-tenants-until-2034-to-make-up-late-payments).↩︎

18. For example, Simons, Braun, and Baba (2020) and Voigtländer (2020).↩︎