Inference for numerical data
Omar Pineda
North Carolina births
In 2004, the state of North Carolina released a large data set containing information on births recorded in this state. This data set is useful to researchers studying the relation between habits and practices of expectant mothers and the birth of their children. We will work with a random sample of observations from this data set.
Exploratory analysis
Load the nc data set into our workspace.
load("more/nc.RData")We have observations on 13 different variables, some categorical and some numerical. The meaning of each variable is as follows.
| variable | description |
|---|---|
fage |
father’s age in years. |
mage |
mother’s age in years. |
mature |
maturity status of mother. |
weeks |
length of pregnancy in weeks. |
premie |
whether the birth was classified as premature (premie) or full-term. |
visits |
number of hospital visits during pregnancy. |
marital |
whether mother is married or not married at birth. |
gained |
weight gained by mother during pregnancy in pounds. |
weight |
weight of the baby at birth in pounds. |
lowbirthweight |
whether baby was classified as low birthweight (low) or not (not low). |
gender |
gender of the baby, female or male. |
habit |
status of the mother as a nonsmoker or a smoker. |
whitemom |
whether mom is white or not white. |
- What are the cases in this data set? How many cases are there in our sample?
The cases are births and there are 1000 cases in our sample.
As a first step in the analysis, we should consider summaries of the data. This can be done using the summary command:
summary(nc)## fage mage mature weeks
## Min. :14.00 Min. :13 mature mom :133 Min. :20.00
## 1st Qu.:25.00 1st Qu.:22 younger mom:867 1st Qu.:37.00
## Median :30.00 Median :27 Median :39.00
## Mean :30.26 Mean :27 Mean :38.33
## 3rd Qu.:35.00 3rd Qu.:32 3rd Qu.:40.00
## Max. :55.00 Max. :50 Max. :45.00
## NA's :171 NA's :2
## premie visits marital gained
## full term:846 Min. : 0.0 married :386 Min. : 0.00
## premie :152 1st Qu.:10.0 not married:613 1st Qu.:20.00
## NA's : 2 Median :12.0 NA's : 1 Median :30.00
## Mean :12.1 Mean :30.33
## 3rd Qu.:15.0 3rd Qu.:38.00
## Max. :30.0 Max. :85.00
## NA's :9 NA's :27
## weight lowbirthweight gender habit
## Min. : 1.000 low :111 female:503 nonsmoker:873
## 1st Qu.: 6.380 not low:889 male :497 smoker :126
## Median : 7.310 NA's : 1
## Mean : 7.101
## 3rd Qu.: 8.060
## Max. :11.750
##
## whitemom
## not white:284
## white :714
## NA's : 2
##
##
##
## nc## fage mage mature weeks premie visits marital gained
## 1 NA 13 younger mom 39 full term 10 married 38
## 2 NA 14 younger mom 42 full term 15 married 20
## 3 19 15 younger mom 37 full term 11 married 38
## 4 21 15 younger mom 41 full term 6 married 34
## 5 NA 15 younger mom 39 full term 9 married 27
## 6 NA 15 younger mom 38 full term 19 married 22
## 7 18 15 younger mom 37 full term 12 married 76
## 8 17 15 younger mom 35 premie 5 married 15
## 9 NA 16 younger mom 38 full term 9 married NA
## 10 20 16 younger mom 37 full term 13 married 52
## 11 30 16 younger mom 45 full term 9 married 28
## 12 NA 16 younger mom 42 full term 8 married 34
## 13 NA 16 younger mom 40 full term 4 married 12
## 14 NA 16 younger mom 38 full term 12 married 30
## 15 21 16 younger mom 38 full term 15 married 75
## 16 NA 16 younger mom 40 full term 7 married 35
## 17 14 16 younger mom 40 full term 12 married 9
## 18 16 16 younger mom 24 premie 5 married 12
## 19 20 17 younger mom 40 full term 8 married 20
## 20 18 17 younger mom 37 full term 10 married 39
## 21 NA 17 younger mom 39 full term 10 married 40
## 22 20 17 younger mom 40 full term 17 married 38
## 23 20 17 younger mom 39 full term 9 married 36
## 24 NA 17 younger mom 40 full term 15 married 20
## 25 26 17 younger mom 38 full term 11 married 30
## 26 NA 17 younger mom 38 full term 12 married 30
## 27 NA 17 younger mom 39 full term 12 married 50
## 28 20 17 younger mom 40 full term 10 married 68
## 29 31 17 younger mom 39 full term 12 married 27
## 30 17 17 younger mom 38 full term 12 married 22
## 31 NA 17 younger mom 42 full term 8 married 72
## 32 19 17 younger mom 36 premie 15 married 25
## 33 20 17 younger mom 29 premie 6 married 35
## 34 17 17 younger mom 29 premie 4 married 10
## 35 19 17 younger mom 35 premie 3 married 30
## 36 18 17 younger mom 35 premie 12 married 25
## 37 18 17 younger mom 31 premie 6 married 1
## 38 NA 18 younger mom 42 full term 15 married 27
## 39 28 18 younger mom 38 full term 15 married 30
## 40 28 18 younger mom 41 full term 10 married 11
## 41 20 18 younger mom 43 full term 8 married 50
## 42 NA 18 younger mom 41 full term 6 married 41
## 43 25 18 younger mom 40 full term 6 not married 20
## 44 20 18 younger mom 38 full term 6 married 48
## 45 23 18 younger mom 37 full term 6 not married 35
## 46 21 18 younger mom 38 full term 16 married 40
## 47 21 18 younger mom 41 full term 10 married 30
## 48 24 18 younger mom 40 full term 15 not married 57
## 49 20 18 younger mom 40 full term 11 married 28
## 50 20 18 younger mom 38 full term 13 married 60
## 51 21 18 younger mom 40 full term 12 married NA
## 52 21 18 younger mom 40 full term 13 married 10
## 53 25 18 younger mom 42 full term 11 married 35
## 54 20 18 younger mom 41 full term 9 married 18
## 55 21 18 younger mom 37 full term 15 married 23
## 56 NA 18 younger mom 39 full term 8 married 26
## 57 18 18 younger mom 40 full term NA married 32
## 58 20 18 younger mom 38 full term 14 not married 56
## 59 18 18 younger mom 39 full term 11 married 60
## 60 21 18 younger mom 41 full term 13 married 28
## 61 NA 18 younger mom 40 full term 12 married 13
## 62 22 18 younger mom 39 full term 14 married 23
## 63 NA 18 younger mom 39 full term 0 married 15
## 64 23 18 younger mom 37 full term 4 married NA
## 65 20 18 younger mom 41 full term 14 married NA
## 66 24 18 younger mom 40 full term 14 not married 47
## 67 20 18 younger mom 38 full term 15 married 50
## 68 NA 18 younger mom 44 full term 15 married 17
## 69 25 18 younger mom 41 full term 17 not married 33
## 70 24 18 younger mom 37 full term 8 married 25
## 71 NA 18 younger mom 36 premie 18 married 20
## 72 22 18 younger mom 33 premie 9 married 4
## 73 23 18 younger mom 30 premie 2 married NA
## 74 21 18 younger mom 36 premie 8 married 10
## 75 NA 18 younger mom 33 premie 7 married 40
## 76 NA 19 younger mom 39 full term 10 married 22
## 77 21 19 younger mom 39 full term 12 married 50
## 78 31 19 younger mom 40 full term 11 married 16
## 79 20 19 younger mom 40 full term 15 not married 30
## 80 NA 19 younger mom 41 full term 12 married 0
## 81 21 19 younger mom 40 full term 11 not married 23
## 82 22 19 younger mom 38 full term 15 married 30
## 83 NA 19 younger mom 39 full term 10 married 35
## 84 NA 19 younger mom 42 full term 10 married 25
## 85 23 19 younger mom 37 full term 18 not married 46
## 86 19 19 younger mom 38 full term 6 married 40
## 87 24 19 younger mom 40 full term 12 married 36
## 88 20 19 younger mom 38 full term 17 married 51
## 89 21 19 younger mom 41 full term 15 married 55
## 90 24 19 younger mom 40 full term 4 married 55
## 91 20 19 younger mom 41 full term 15 married 25
## 92 NA 19 younger mom 39 full term 9 married 35
## 93 21 19 younger mom 37 full term 8 married 35
## 94 32 19 younger mom 43 full term 2 married 27
## 95 21 19 younger mom 41 full term 13 married 38
## 96 21 19 younger mom 39 full term 15 married 38
## 97 NA 19 younger mom 38 full term 3 married 36
## 98 19 19 younger mom 37 full term 0 married 12
## 99 NA 19 younger mom 39 full term 11 married 48
## 100 NA 19 younger mom 39 full term 7 married 0
## 101 25 19 younger mom 40 full term 16 married 37
## 102 25 19 younger mom 41 full term 13 married 47
## 103 NA 19 younger mom 34 premie 10 married NA
## 104 NA 19 younger mom 34 premie 0 married 20
## 105 NA 19 younger mom 22 premie 5 married 20
## 106 27 19 younger mom 32 premie 5 not married 32
## 107 NA 19 younger mom 36 premie 9 married 5
## 108 NA 19 younger mom 35 premie 12 married 50
## 109 19 19 younger mom 36 premie 10 not married 35
## 110 26 19 younger mom 36 premie 12 married 24
## 111 22 20 younger mom 39 full term 14 not married 25
## 112 21 20 younger mom 40 full term 9 not married 30
## 113 17 20 younger mom 39 full term 16 married 35
## 114 NA 20 younger mom 38 full term 15 married 35
## 115 21 20 younger mom 40 full term 14 not married 23
## 116 21 20 younger mom 38 full term 15 married 30
## 117 29 20 younger mom 40 full term 11 married 50
## 118 NA 20 younger mom 39 full term 16 married 19
## 119 21 20 younger mom 37 full term 10 married 18
## 120 20 20 younger mom 40 full term 15 married 46
## 121 22 20 younger mom 38 full term 14 married 24
## 122 24 20 younger mom 41 full term 16 married 35
## 123 21 20 younger mom 41 full term 14 not married 29
## 124 20 20 younger mom 40 full term 3 not married 18
## 125 23 20 younger mom 39 full term 0 married 70
## 126 25 20 younger mom 42 full term 15 not married 35
## 127 25 20 younger mom 39 full term 8 married 23
## 128 21 20 younger mom 38 full term 14 not married 20
## 129 21 20 younger mom 40 full term 12 not married 14
## 130 18 20 younger mom 39 full term 10 married 35
## 131 21 20 younger mom 38 full term 10 not married 50
## 132 24 20 younger mom 41 full term 15 married 60
## 133 NA 20 younger mom 39 full term 16 married 18
## 134 21 20 younger mom 37 full term 23 not married 40
## 135 21 20 younger mom 38 full term 10 married 40
## 136 31 20 younger mom 41 full term 13 married 27
## 137 24 20 younger mom 38 full term 9 married 25
## 138 20 20 younger mom 37 full term 12 not married 22
## 139 21 20 younger mom 38 full term 8 not married 35
## 140 18 20 younger mom 40 full term 10 married 28
## 141 NA 20 younger mom 37 full term 2 married NA
## 142 36 20 younger mom 41 full term 12 married 20
## 143 22 20 younger mom 43 full term 10 not married 10
## 144 22 20 younger mom 38 full term 13 not married 35
## 145 20 20 younger mom 38 full term 12 married 25
## 146 23 20 younger mom 39 full term 13 married 33
## 147 25 20 younger mom 38 full term 15 not married 31
## 148 18 20 younger mom 38 full term 8 not married 34
## 149 28 20 younger mom 38 full term 7 married 52
## 150 NA 20 younger mom 38 full term 12 married 45
## 151 22 20 younger mom 41 full term 11 not married 52
## 152 NA 20 younger mom 39 full term 13 married 25
## 153 NA 20 younger mom 40 full term 7 married 25
## 154 23 20 younger mom 41 full term 11 married 47
## 155 38 20 younger mom 37 full term 5 married 19
## 156 21 20 younger mom 42 full term 11 married 45
## 157 22 20 younger mom 38 full term 8 not married 45
## 158 22 20 younger mom 43 full term 11 married 55
## 159 33 20 younger mom 39 full term 15 married 41
## 160 22 20 younger mom 37 full term 8 married 27
## 161 24 20 younger mom 39 full term 12 not married 55
## 162 26 20 younger mom 41 full term 16 not married 21
## 163 20 20 younger mom 41 full term 12 married 24
## 164 28 20 younger mom 42 full term 30 married 23
## 165 NA 20 younger mom 40 full term 17 married 39
## 166 NA 20 younger mom 39 full term 15 married 70
## 167 NA 20 younger mom 37 full term 10 married 26
## 168 NA 20 younger mom 35 premie 20 not married 35
## 169 28 20 younger mom 35 premie 7 married 30
## 170 19 20 younger mom 33 premie 0 not married 23
## 171 NA 20 younger mom 36 premie 15 married 20
## 172 19 20 younger mom 34 premie 13 married 6
## 173 NA 20 younger mom 33 premie 9 married 18
## 174 NA 20 younger mom 36 premie 10 married 32
## 175 22 20 younger mom 34 premie 14 not married 13
## 176 22 20 younger mom 32 premie 5 married 40
## 177 22 21 younger mom 38 full term 12 not married 47
## 178 35 21 younger mom 38 full term 7 not married 40
## 179 24 21 younger mom 39 full term 14 married 2
## 180 NA 21 younger mom 41 full term 18 married 62
## 181 25 21 younger mom 39 full term 10 not married 18
## 182 32 21 younger mom 40 full term 11 not married 58
## 183 24 21 younger mom 40 full term 10 not married 25
## 184 28 21 younger mom 38 full term 12 married 40
## 185 27 21 younger mom 41 full term 8 not married 26
## 186 22 21 younger mom 39 full term 4 not married NA
## 187 22 21 younger mom 40 full term 15 married 22
## 188 18 21 younger mom 39 full term 14 not married 28
## 189 22 21 younger mom 38 full term 14 married 36
## 190 20 21 younger mom 43 full term 15 not married 17
## 191 23 21 younger mom 40 full term 15 not married 38
## 192 NA 21 younger mom 41 full term 12 married 32
## 193 26 21 younger mom 44 full term 11 not married 15
## 194 24 21 younger mom 41 full term 13 not married 40
## 195 24 21 younger mom 41 full term 10 married 60
## 196 29 21 younger mom 39 full term 18 not married 13
## 197 22 21 younger mom 37 full term 19 married 30
## 198 21 21 younger mom 38 full term 10 not married 35
## 199 25 21 younger mom 39 full term 8 married 32
## 200 22 21 younger mom 39 full term 8 married 27
## 201 18 21 younger mom 40 full term 15 married 37
## 202 22 21 younger mom 37 full term 5 not married 30
## 203 23 21 younger mom 39 full term 10 married 55
## 204 25 21 younger mom 40 full term 16 not married 26
## 205 NA 21 younger mom 41 full term 10 married 40
## 206 NA 21 younger mom 39 full term 20 not married 30
## 207 26 21 younger mom 38 full term 9 married 23
## 208 NA 21 younger mom 38 full term 10 not married 12
## 209 35 21 younger mom 40 full term 10 married 29
## 210 25 21 younger mom 38 full term 14 not married 0
## 211 22 21 younger mom 38 full term 16 not married 30
## 212 NA 21 younger mom 40 full term 12 married NA
## 213 NA 21 younger mom 38 full term 5 married 0
## 214 21 21 younger mom 45 full term 10 not married 40
## 215 NA 21 younger mom 38 full term 11 not married 41
## 216 21 21 younger mom 37 full term 15 married 20
## 217 NA 21 younger mom 39 full term 10 married 56
## 218 24 21 younger mom 34 premie 15 married 16
## 219 NA 21 younger mom 34 premie 12 married 25
## 220 NA 21 younger mom 36 premie 10 married 25
## 221 27 21 younger mom 36 premie 12 not married 65
## 222 NA 21 younger mom 36 premie 15 married 10
## 223 21 21 younger mom 29 premie 4 married 13
## 224 NA 21 younger mom 36 premie 3 married 16
## 225 21 21 younger mom 35 premie 15 not married 31
## 226 NA 21 younger mom 35 premie 8 not married 40
## 227 28 21 younger mom 35 premie 9 not married 15
## 228 34 22 younger mom 37 full term 10 married 50
## 229 24 22 younger mom 42 full term 7 married 21
## 230 22 22 younger mom 39 full term 11 not married 34
## 231 28 22 younger mom 40 full term 12 not married 24
## 232 35 22 younger mom 39 full term 10 married 20
## 233 24 22 younger mom 39 full term 12 married 32
## 234 26 22 younger mom 40 full term 10 married 23
## 235 25 22 younger mom 39 full term 14 not married 11
## 236 24 22 younger mom 39 full term 15 married 45
## 237 26 22 younger mom 40 full term 14 not married 32
## 238 31 22 younger mom 41 full term 12 not married 20
## 239 26 22 younger mom 39 full term 10 married 45
## 240 27 22 younger mom 39 full term 11 not married 35
## 241 26 22 younger mom 41 full term 18 married 1
## 242 22 22 younger mom 41 full term 11 not married 31
## 243 24 22 younger mom 37 full term 10 married 17
## 244 NA 22 younger mom 40 full term 15 married 15
## 245 23 22 younger mom 43 full term 15 not married 26
## 246 26 22 younger mom 39 full term 9 not married 32
## 247 NA 22 younger mom 41 full term 13 married 28
## 248 NA 22 younger mom 37 full term 12 married NA
## 249 26 22 younger mom 38 full term 6 not married 10
## 250 23 22 younger mom 37 full term 14 not married 56
## 251 NA 22 younger mom 37 full term 8 married 23
## 252 28 22 younger mom 41 full term 15 not married 9
## 253 28 22 younger mom 38 full term 6 married 45
## 254 26 22 younger mom 39 full term 11 not married 35
## 255 NA 22 younger mom 37 full term 7 married 39
## 256 22 22 younger mom 40 full term 15 married 31
## 257 23 22 younger mom 39 full term 15 not married 50
## 258 21 22 younger mom 39 full term 15 not married 80
## 259 NA 22 younger mom 40 full term 7 married 25
## 260 22 22 younger mom 39 full term 14 not married 29
## 261 21 22 younger mom 39 full term 16 married 45
## 262 21 22 younger mom 40 full term 10 married 85
## 263 30 22 younger mom 39 full term 8 married 20
## 264 23 22 younger mom 37 full term 10 not married 30
## 265 24 22 younger mom 39 full term 5 married 10
## 266 NA 22 younger mom 39 full term 13 married 37
## 267 21 22 younger mom 40 full term 18 not married 30
## 268 22 22 younger mom 40 full term 14 married 23
## 269 29 22 younger mom 42 full term 16 not married 36
## 270 NA 22 younger mom 37 full term 9 married 41
## 271 23 22 younger mom 37 full term 15 not married 20
## 272 27 22 younger mom 38 full term 20 married 19
## 273 24 22 younger mom 40 full term 16 not married 34
## 274 27 22 younger mom 39 full term 12 not married 30
## 275 24 22 younger mom 39 full term 11 not married 27
## 276 30 22 younger mom 40 full term 16 married 18
## 277 NA 22 younger mom 40 full term 18 married 54
## 278 21 22 younger mom 39 full term 9 not married 50
## 279 25 22 younger mom 39 full term 12 not married 27
## 280 NA 22 younger mom 39 full term 13 married 38
## 281 22 22 younger mom 40 full term 13 not married 0
## 282 NA 22 younger mom 32 premie 8 married 35
## 283 27 22 younger mom 35 premie 12 not married 30
## 284 25 22 younger mom 34 premie 10 not married 20
## 285 25 22 younger mom 34 premie 13 not married 35
## 286 31 22 younger mom 30 premie 10 married 25
## 287 28 22 younger mom 22 premie 8 married 10
## 288 26 23 younger mom 38 full term 5 married 28
## 289 41 23 younger mom 38 full term 3 not married 11
## 290 NA 23 younger mom 42 full term 9 not married 22
## 291 26 23 younger mom 42 full term 14 not married 23
## 292 31 23 younger mom 44 full term 14 married 40
## 293 24 23 younger mom 37 full term 12 not married 30
## 294 25 23 younger mom 41 full term 15 not married 30
## 295 26 23 younger mom 38 full term 15 not married 29
## 296 29 23 younger mom 38 full term 20 not married 39
## 297 24 23 younger mom 39 full term 13 not married 30
## 298 NA 23 younger mom 41 full term 14 not married 19
## 299 28 23 younger mom 39 full term 14 not married 36
## 300 28 23 younger mom 40 full term 8 not married 31
## 301 24 23 younger mom 41 full term 15 not married 25
## 302 20 23 younger mom 39 full term 10 married 30
## 303 NA 23 younger mom 40 full term 11 married 12
## 304 28 23 younger mom 40 full term 12 married 13
## 305 23 23 younger mom 40 full term 13 not married 9
## 306 22 23 younger mom 38 full term 10 not married 20
## 307 36 23 younger mom 40 full term 10 married 47
## 308 31 23 younger mom 43 full term 12 not married 8
## 309 NA 23 younger mom 38 full term 10 married 0
## 310 NA 23 younger mom 38 full term 12 married 35
## 311 26 23 younger mom 40 full term 14 not married 28
## 312 23 23 younger mom 40 full term 9 married 24
## 313 27 23 younger mom 43 full term 15 not married 30
## 314 26 23 younger mom 43 full term 15 married 35
## 315 NA 23 younger mom 40 full term 10 married 30
## 316 23 23 younger mom 37 full term 10 married 33
## 317 27 23 younger mom 37 full term 6 married 33
## 318 25 23 younger mom 39 full term 15 not married 30
## 319 24 23 younger mom 38 full term 13 married 22
## 320 22 23 younger mom 38 full term 10 married 54
## 321 NA 23 younger mom 44 full term 4 married 55
## 322 20 23 younger mom 39 full term 15 not married 56
## 323 NA 23 younger mom 37 full term NA married 25
## 324 26 23 younger mom 41 full term 10 not married 40
## 325 NA 23 younger mom 39 full term 11 married 40
## 326 NA 23 younger mom 25 premie 12 married 60
## 327 NA 23 younger mom 36 premie 10 married 62
## 328 28 23 younger mom 36 premie 12 not married 50
## 329 NA 23 younger mom 32 premie 13 married 28
## 330 25 23 younger mom 24 premie 5 married NA
## 331 23 23 younger mom 36 premie 18 married 30
## 332 22 23 younger mom 36 premie 11 not married 15
## 333 21 23 younger mom 33 premie 5 married 30
## 334 26 23 younger mom 36 premie 18 not married 20
## 335 44 23 younger mom 36 premie 0 married NA
## 336 26 23 younger mom 36 premie 12 not married 30
## 337 NA 23 younger mom 36 premie 2 married 27
## 338 26 23 younger mom 35 premie 14 not married 23
## 339 43 24 younger mom 38 full term 16 married 30
## 340 26 24 younger mom 38 full term 9 not married 35
## 341 21 24 younger mom 40 full term 18 not married 35
## 342 27 24 younger mom 39 full term 15 not married 40
## 343 25 24 younger mom 39 full term 10 not married 20
## 344 28 24 younger mom 38 full term 7 married 10
## 345 24 24 younger mom 41 full term 13 married NA
## 346 45 24 younger mom 37 full term 15 not married 40
## 347 NA 24 younger mom 39 full term 9 married 15
## 348 26 24 younger mom 39 full term 14 not married 36
## 349 27 24 younger mom 40 full term 11 not married 8
## 350 27 24 younger mom 40 full term 15 not married 58
## 351 25 24 younger mom 37 full term 12 not married 45
## 352 NA 24 younger mom 42 full term 7 married 30
## 353 30 24 younger mom 39 full term 11 married 41
## 354 27 24 younger mom 39 full term 2 married 10
## 355 32 24 younger mom 41 full term 15 married 20
## 356 NA 24 younger mom 38 full term 16 not married 50
## 357 29 24 younger mom 38 full term 15 not married 20
## 358 30 24 younger mom 38 full term 15 not married 35
## 359 22 24 younger mom 39 full term 14 not married 18
## 360 NA 24 younger mom 38 full term 16 married 15
## 361 29 24 younger mom 44 full term 18 not married 30
## 362 32 24 younger mom 37 full term 12 not married 28
## 363 NA 24 younger mom 41 full term 6 married 60
## 364 24 24 younger mom 38 full term 17 married 13
## 365 27 24 younger mom 39 full term 10 not married 35
## 366 22 24 younger mom 39 full term 10 not married 35
## 367 28 24 younger mom 39 full term 11 married NA
## 368 25 24 younger mom 41 full term 16 not married 37
## 369 47 24 younger mom 40 full term 12 not married 46
## 370 46 24 younger mom 38 full term 14 not married 58
## 371 NA 24 younger mom 38 full term 12 married 0
## 372 NA 24 younger mom 39 full term 20 married 26
## 373 28 24 younger mom 38 full term 15 not married 21
## 374 34 24 younger mom 37 full term 12 not married 20
## 375 25 24 younger mom 40 full term 15 not married 29
## 376 28 24 younger mom 38 full term 12 not married 28
## 377 19 24 younger mom 40 full term 11 married 70
## 378 28 24 younger mom 40 full term 12 not married 29
## 379 20 24 younger mom 38 full term 11 married 50
## 380 NA 24 younger mom 39 full term 6 married 30
## 381 26 24 younger mom 38 full term 13 not married NA
## 382 30 24 younger mom 41 full term 12 not married 40
## 383 32 24 younger mom 39 full term 8 not married 23
## 384 NA 24 younger mom 37 full term 5 not married 34
## 385 NA 24 younger mom 38 full term 5 married NA
## 386 NA 24 younger mom 40 full term 12 married 47
## 387 NA 24 younger mom 39 full term 8 married 22
## 388 32 24 younger mom 36 premie 12 not married 12
## 389 29 24 younger mom 34 premie 12 not married 31
## 390 NA 24 younger mom 35 premie 3 married 13
## 391 NA 24 younger mom 34 premie 7 married 18
## 392 24 25 younger mom 41 full term 14 married 30
## 393 NA 25 younger mom 37 full term 11 married 31
## 394 NA 25 younger mom 38 full term 11 married 27
## 395 26 25 younger mom 39 full term 16 not married 0
## 396 30 25 younger mom 40 full term 12 not married 35
## 397 NA 25 younger mom 40 full term 15 married 38
## 398 23 25 younger mom 41 full term 12 not married 20
## 399 24 25 younger mom 37 full term 15 married 20
## 400 32 25 younger mom 41 full term 13 not married 50
## 401 32 25 younger mom 37 full term 13 not married 50
## 402 NA 25 younger mom 38 full term 17 not married 38
## 403 29 25 younger mom 38 full term 18 not married 20
## 404 23 25 younger mom 37 full term 8 not married 53
## 405 24 25 younger mom 40 full term 15 married 36
## 406 NA 25 younger mom 39 full term 14 not married 20
## 407 26 25 younger mom 39 full term 9 not married 25
## 408 25 25 younger mom 39 full term 18 not married 28
## 409 36 25 younger mom 40 full term 13 not married 34
## 410 NA 25 younger mom 40 full term 14 married 48
## 411 31 25 younger mom 41 full term 14 not married 27
## 412 35 25 younger mom 37 full term 30 not married 60
## 413 27 25 younger mom 40 full term 14 not married 47
## 414 NA 25 younger mom 40 full term 8 married 18
## 415 28 25 younger mom 40 full term 7 not married 31
## 416 NA 25 younger mom 38 full term 9 married 30
## 417 27 25 younger mom 40 full term 11 not married 26
## 418 NA 25 younger mom 39 full term 6 married 40
## 419 24 25 younger mom 42 full term 18 married 33
## 420 27 25 younger mom 39 full term 15 not married 31
## 421 34 25 younger mom 38 full term 6 not married 50
## 422 32 25 younger mom 41 full term 14 not married 32
## 423 29 25 younger mom 39 full term 10 not married 29
## 424 29 25 younger mom 41 full term 8 not married 33
## 425 24 25 younger mom 38 full term 22 not married 35
## 426 25 25 younger mom 38 full term 19 not married 13
## 427 NA 25 younger mom 39 full term 12 not married 41
## 428 NA 25 younger mom 37 full term 20 not married 20
## 429 27 25 younger mom 40 full term 15 not married 32
## 430 30 25 younger mom 40 full term 15 not married 13
## 431 25 25 younger mom 38 full term 12 not married 24
## 432 26 25 younger mom 38 full term 10 not married 26
## 433 26 25 younger mom 40 full term 10 not married 25
## 434 34 25 younger mom 40 full term 12 married 44
## 435 NA 25 younger mom 39 full term 5 not married 37
## 436 23 25 younger mom 37 full term 14 not married 33
## 437 21 25 younger mom 39 full term 15 married 30
## 438 25 25 younger mom 38 full term 10 married 35
## 439 NA 25 younger mom 40 full term 8 married 23
## 440 33 25 younger mom 35 premie 15 not married 18
## 441 NA 25 younger mom 36 premie 8 married 30
## 442 24 25 younger mom 29 premie 10 married 0
## 443 NA 25 younger mom 35 premie 0 married 20
## 444 23 25 younger mom 34 premie 11 not married 40
## 445 30 25 younger mom 35 premie 15 not married 40
## 446 27 26 younger mom 38 full term 14 not married 32
## 447 28 26 younger mom 39 full term 15 not married 45
## 448 28 26 younger mom 40 full term 14 married 21
## 449 33 26 younger mom 38 full term 15 not married 27
## 450 30 26 younger mom 39 full term 12 not married 43
## 451 35 26 younger mom 41 full term 12 married 30
## 452 28 26 younger mom 39 full term 15 not married 25
## 453 29 26 younger mom 39 full term 15 not married 27
## 454 30 26 younger mom 39 full term 15 not married 35
## 455 32 26 younger mom 39 full term 13 married 55
## 456 25 26 younger mom 39 full term 12 not married 40
## 457 NA 26 younger mom 42 full term 15 married 35
## 458 33 26 younger mom 39 full term 11 married 27
## 459 28 26 younger mom 40 full term 13 married 38
## 460 29 26 younger mom 38 full term 14 not married 38
## 461 30 26 younger mom 41 full term 13 not married 29
## 462 29 26 younger mom 40 full term 12 not married 38
## 463 27 26 younger mom 39 full term 16 not married 38
## 464 NA 26 younger mom 40 full term 15 married 30
## 465 29 26 younger mom 38 full term 12 not married 25
## 466 NA 26 younger mom 41 full term 6 married 0
## 467 26 26 younger mom 41 full term 10 not married 68
## 468 27 26 younger mom 40 full term 15 not married 24
## 469 28 26 younger mom 40 full term 13 married 35
## 470 25 26 younger mom 41 full term 12 married 20
## 471 32 26 younger mom 41 full term 14 married 19
## 472 29 26 younger mom 41 full term 8 married 39
## 473 30 26 younger mom 39 full term 14 not married 40
## 474 NA 26 younger mom 39 full term 6 married 20
## 475 NA 26 younger mom 41 full term 20 married 20
## 476 32 26 younger mom 40 full term 12 married 40
## 477 23 26 younger mom 40 full term 4 married 15
## 478 25 26 younger mom 43 full term 9 not married 23
## 479 30 26 younger mom 38 full term 18 not married 37
## 480 NA 26 younger mom 37 full term 16 married 22
## 481 32 26 younger mom 40 full term 15 not married 55
## 482 26 26 younger mom 42 full term 15 not married 36
## 483 NA 26 younger mom 38 full term 14 married 40
## 484 25 26 younger mom 38 full term 9 not married 43
## 485 NA 26 younger mom 44 full term 14 married 25
## 486 42 26 younger mom 40 full term 8 not married 38
## 487 22 26 younger mom 39 full term 12 not married 31
## 488 NA 26 younger mom 42 full term 15 married 30
## 489 29 26 younger mom 39 full term 14 not married 65
## 490 31 26 younger mom 36 premie 18 not married 40
## 491 27 26 younger mom 31 premie 20 married 10
## 492 29 26 younger mom 36 premie 10 married 21
## 493 25 26 younger mom 33 premie 10 not married 13
## 494 35 26 younger mom 34 premie 14 not married 48
## 495 NA 26 younger mom 32 premie 18 married 19
## 496 29 26 younger mom 36 premie 4 not married 0
## 497 28 27 younger mom 40 full term 16 not married 28
## 498 33 27 younger mom 41 full term 14 not married 58
## 499 26 27 younger mom 39 full term 8 not married 20
## 500 28 27 younger mom 40 full term 14 not married 36
## 501 28 27 younger mom 39 full term 13 married 61
## 502 30 27 younger mom 39 full term 13 not married 50
## 503 31 27 younger mom 38 full term 12 not married 31
## 504 27 27 younger mom 37 full term 13 not married 38
## 505 32 27 younger mom 38 full term 11 not married 14
## 506 37 27 younger mom 41 full term 8 not married 15
## 507 30 27 younger mom 39 full term 10 not married 37
## 508 40 27 younger mom 37 full term 5 married 15
## 509 31 27 younger mom 40 full term 13 married 3
## 510 30 27 younger mom 43 full term 12 not married 17
## 511 31 27 younger mom 39 full term 5 married 35
## 512 33 27 younger mom 39 full term 9 married 40
## 513 45 27 younger mom 39 full term 14 not married 43
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## 520 NA 27 younger mom 41 full term 10 married 20
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## 522 NA 27 younger mom 37 full term 10 married 37
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## 530 NA 27 younger mom 38 full term 12 married 40
## 531 34 27 younger mom 39 full term 16 not married 24
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## 536 30 27 younger mom 39 full term 15 not married 22
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## 538 30 27 younger mom 34 premie 15 not married 30
## 539 NA 27 younger mom 25 premie 10 married 30
## 540 34 27 younger mom 32 premie 17 married 20
## 541 27 27 younger mom 35 premie 10 not married 19
## 542 33 27 younger mom 36 premie 11 married 14
## 543 28 27 younger mom 33 premie 6 not married 18
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## 545 28 28 younger mom 44 full term 17 not married 32
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## 549 NA 28 younger mom 39 full term 16 married 35
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## 551 28 28 younger mom 40 full term 15 not married 45
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## 555 33 28 younger mom 37 full term NA married 72
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## 573 31 28 younger mom 40 full term 16 not married 20
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## 583 23 28 younger mom 39 full term 13 married 34
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## 589 34 28 younger mom 25 premie NA married 25
## 590 32 28 younger mom 29 premie 18 not married 40
## 591 33 28 younger mom 35 premie 14 not married 25
## 592 34 28 younger mom 32 premie 11 not married 40
## 593 37 28 younger mom 36 premie 14 married 35
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## 596 30 28 younger mom 31 premie 8 married 30
## 597 28 29 younger mom 40 full term 5 not married 20
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## 611 31 29 younger mom 38 full term 14 not married 39
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## 614 30 29 younger mom 39 full term 14 not married 30
## 615 35 29 younger mom 39 full term 6 not married NA
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## 617 32 29 younger mom 39 full term 11 not married 28
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## 619 30 29 younger mom 38 full term 17 not married 55
## 620 29 29 younger mom 37 full term 10 married 40
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## 629 30 29 younger mom 38 full term 10 not married 55
## 630 34 29 younger mom 37 full term 12 married NA
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## 632 22 29 younger mom 39 full term 17 not married 25
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## 640 33 29 younger mom 39 full term 11 married 45
## 641 33 29 younger mom 35 premie 15 not married 13
## 642 29 29 younger mom 35 premie 30 not married 50
## 643 30 29 younger mom 36 premie 14 not married 25
## 644 36 29 younger mom 22 premie NA not married 15
## 645 NA 29 younger mom 34 premie 10 married 20
## 646 23 29 younger mom 36 premie 12 married 30
## 647 NA 29 younger mom 34 premie 6 married 25
## 648 24 29 younger mom 35 premie 10 married 40
## 649 31 30 younger mom 41 full term 12 not married 25
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## 654 31 30 younger mom 39 full term 12 not married 22
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## 665 36 30 younger mom 39 full term 11 not married 21
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## 668 29 30 younger mom 39 full term 10 not married 43
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## 670 NA 30 younger mom 40 full term 10 married 0
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## 680 NA 30 younger mom 36 premie 8 married 30
## 681 30 30 younger mom 36 premie 14 not married 30
## 682 NA 30 younger mom 36 premie 11 married 21
## 683 NA 30 younger mom 34 premie 15 married 14
## 684 32 30 younger mom 31 premie 8 not married NA
## 685 32 30 younger mom 35 premie 10 not married 20
## 686 31 30 younger mom 36 premie 14 not married NA
## 687 30 30 younger mom 35 premie 12 not married 0
## 688 34 31 younger mom 39 full term 15 not married 22
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## 692 28 31 younger mom 39 full term 12 not married NA
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## 704 34 31 younger mom 40 full term 14 not married 44
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## 706 NA 31 younger mom 40 full term 10 married 12
## 707 NA 31 younger mom 38 full term 16 married 20
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## 709 31 31 younger mom 41 full term 14 not married 40
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## 733 30 31 younger mom 26 premie 8 not married 7
## 734 32 31 younger mom 30 premie 10 not married 20
## 735 32 31 younger mom 36 premie 13 not married 20
## 736 32 31 younger mom 34 premie 9 not married 31
## 737 NA 31 younger mom 36 premie 12 married 34
## 738 32 31 younger mom 33 premie 16 not married 55
## 739 29 31 younger mom 36 premie 8 not married 42
## 740 33 32 younger mom NA <NA> 9 not married 25
## 741 NA 32 younger mom 41 full term 15 married 28
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## 768 27 32 younger mom 39 full term 12 not married 27
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## 770 33 32 younger mom 33 premie 13 not married 35
## 771 35 32 younger mom 33 premie 14 not married 30
## 772 32 32 younger mom 33 premie 9 not married 22
## 773 45 32 younger mom 35 premie 14 not married 29
## 774 42 32 younger mom 26 premie 13 not married 36
## 775 32 32 younger mom 26 premie 8 not married 35
## 776 NA 32 younger mom 33 premie 10 not married 60
## 777 23 32 younger mom 36 premie 18 not married 10
## 778 35 33 younger mom 40 full term 11 not married 23
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## 780 33 33 younger mom 38 full term 15 married 60
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## 808 31 33 younger mom 39 full term NA married 40
## 809 34 33 younger mom 39 full term 12 not married 0
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## 820 34 33 younger mom 35 premie 10 married 20
## 821 37 33 younger mom 36 premie 13 not married 23
## 822 37 33 younger mom 36 premie 11 not married 15
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## 862 38 34 younger mom 39 full term 9 not married 34
## 863 38 34 younger mom 34 premie 10 not married 29
## 864 38 34 younger mom 36 premie 7 not married 22
## 865 38 34 younger mom 34 premie 10 not married 15
## 866 NA 34 younger mom 33 premie 17 married 14
## 867 34 34 younger mom 28 premie 20 not married 21
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## 896 32 35 mature mom 35 premie 12 married 13
## 897 38 35 mature mom 36 premie 16 not married 32
## 898 31 35 mature mom 36 premie 12 not married 24
## 899 38 35 mature mom 36 premie 11 not married 16
## 900 37 35 mature mom 28 premie 8 not married 15
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## 925 40 36 mature mom 39 full term 9 not married NA
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## 932 36 36 mature mom 30 premie 10 not married 65
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## 938 41 37 mature mom 38 full term 12 not married 70
## 939 44 37 mature mom 39 full term 12 not married 20
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## 950 42 37 mature mom 40 full term NA not married 10
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## 953 37 37 mature mom 39 full term 14 not married 30
## 954 NA 37 mature mom 38 full term 3 married NA
## 955 NA 37 mature mom 39 full term 5 married 20
## 956 41 37 mature mom 35 premie 15 not married 40
## 957 38 37 mature mom 35 premie 20 not married 37
## 958 45 37 mature mom 35 premie 9 not married 45
## 959 38 37 mature mom 26 premie 5 not married 25
## 960 37 38 mature mom 40 full term 11 not married 44
## 961 39 38 mature mom 39 full term 16 not married 30
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## 969 26 38 mature mom 20 premie 5 married 30
## 970 36 38 mature mom 35 premie 15 married 34
## 971 NA 38 mature mom 32 premie 10 married 16
## 972 41 39 mature mom 39 full term 11 not married 30
## 973 39 39 mature mom 40 full term 12 not married 27
## 974 43 39 mature mom 38 full term 17 married 40
## 975 38 39 mature mom 39 full term 20 not married 50
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## 977 46 39 mature mom 38 full term 10 married 35
## 978 53 39 mature mom 33 premie 6 married 24
## 979 40 40 mature mom 38 full term 13 not married 38
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## 985 42 40 mature mom 35 premie 12 not married 35
## 986 33 40 mature mom 36 premie 13 married 23
## 987 46 40 mature mom 35 premie 14 not married NA
## 988 NA 41 mature mom NA <NA> NA <NA> NA
## 989 48 41 mature mom 41 full term 15 not married 28
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## 991 42 41 mature mom 38 full term 11 married 12
## 992 43 41 mature mom 39 full term 14 not married 10
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## 995 NA 41 mature mom 33 premie 13 not married 0
## 996 47 42 mature mom 40 full term 10 not married 26
## 997 34 42 mature mom 38 full term 18 not married 20
## 998 39 45 mature mom 40 full term 15 not married 32
## 999 55 46 mature mom 31 premie 8 not married 25
## 1000 45 50 mature mom 39 full term 14 not married 23
## weight lowbirthweight gender habit whitemom
## 1 7.63 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 2 7.88 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 3 6.63 not low female nonsmoker white
## 4 8.00 not low male nonsmoker white
## 5 6.38 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 6 5.38 low male nonsmoker not white
## 7 8.44 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 8 4.69 low male nonsmoker not white
## 9 8.81 not low male nonsmoker white
## 10 6.94 not low female nonsmoker white
## 11 7.44 not low male nonsmoker white
## 12 8.81 not low female nonsmoker white
## 13 6.00 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 14 7.13 not low female nonsmoker white
## 15 7.56 not low female smoker white
## 16 6.88 not low male smoker white
## 17 5.81 not low female smoker white
## 18 1.50 low male nonsmoker not white
## 19 8.25 not low female nonsmoker white
## 20 6.19 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 21 7.00 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 22 7.19 not low male nonsmoker white
## 23 6.00 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 24 7.63 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 25 9.50 not low female nonsmoker white
## 26 5.56 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 27 7.50 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 28 7.44 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 29 7.56 not low male nonsmoker white
## 30 6.06 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 31 7.44 not low male smoker white
## 32 7.00 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 33 4.56 low male nonsmoker not white
## 34 2.63 low female nonsmoker not white
## 35 6.38 not low male nonsmoker white
## 36 7.25 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 37 1.56 low female nonsmoker white
## 38 7.44 not low male nonsmoker white
## 39 6.00 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 40 6.50 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 41 7.31 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 42 7.88 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 43 6.19 not low male nonsmoker white
## 44 7.00 not low female nonsmoker white
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## 622 9.56 not low male nonsmoker white
## 623 6.50 not low female nonsmoker white
## 624 7.44 not low female nonsmoker white
## 625 6.31 not low female nonsmoker white
## 626 8.50 not low male nonsmoker white
## 627 7.31 not low female nonsmoker white
## 628 5.00 low female nonsmoker not white
## 629 5.44 low male nonsmoker white
## 630 6.81 not low male nonsmoker white
## 631 6.31 not low female nonsmoker white
## 632 9.75 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 633 8.25 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 634 6.63 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 635 7.56 not low female nonsmoker white
## 636 7.81 not low male nonsmoker white
## 637 6.81 not low female nonsmoker white
## 638 7.69 not low male smoker not white
## 639 5.69 not low male smoker white
## 640 8.69 not low male smoker white
## 641 5.44 low female nonsmoker white
## 642 7.94 not low male nonsmoker white
## 643 7.38 not low female nonsmoker white
## 644 1.00 low female nonsmoker white
## 645 6.00 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 646 6.00 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 647 4.88 low male smoker not white
## 648 5.94 not low female smoker white
## 649 8.25 not low female nonsmoker white
## 650 6.06 not low male nonsmoker white
## 651 6.56 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 652 8.19 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 653 8.63 not low female nonsmoker white
## 654 6.75 not low female nonsmoker white
## 655 8.13 not low female nonsmoker white
## 656 5.81 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 657 9.75 not low male nonsmoker white
## 658 7.63 not low male nonsmoker white
## 659 4.56 low male nonsmoker white
## 660 8.75 not low male nonsmoker white
## 661 7.13 not low female nonsmoker white
## 662 7.31 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 663 5.63 not low female nonsmoker white
## 664 8.44 not low male nonsmoker white
## 665 7.88 not low male nonsmoker white
## 666 7.25 not low female nonsmoker white
## 667 11.75 not low male nonsmoker white
## 668 6.88 not low female nonsmoker white
## 669 7.50 not low female nonsmoker white
## 670 6.88 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 671 7.63 not low male nonsmoker white
## 672 8.38 not low female nonsmoker white
## 673 7.56 not low female nonsmoker white
## 674 7.81 not low male smoker white
## 675 6.50 not low female smoker white
## 676 6.88 not low male smoker white
## 677 6.38 not low male smoker white
## 678 6.00 not low female smoker white
## 679 6.50 not low female smoker white
## 680 7.25 not low female nonsmoker white
## 681 4.19 low female nonsmoker white
## 682 7.06 not low male nonsmoker white
## 683 6.06 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 684 2.94 low male nonsmoker not white
## 685 6.00 not low female nonsmoker white
## 686 5.50 low female nonsmoker white
## 687 9.19 not low male smoker white
## 688 8.69 not low male nonsmoker white
## 689 8.00 not low male nonsmoker white
## 690 6.81 not low female nonsmoker white
## 691 6.56 not low male nonsmoker white
## 692 9.19 not low male nonsmoker white
## 693 9.19 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 694 7.44 not low female nonsmoker white
## 695 7.38 not low male nonsmoker white
## 696 7.81 not low male nonsmoker white
## 697 7.81 not low male nonsmoker white
## 698 7.88 not low male nonsmoker white
## 699 8.00 not low male nonsmoker white
## 700 6.56 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 701 6.13 not low female nonsmoker white
## 702 7.44 not low male nonsmoker white
## 703 7.63 not low female nonsmoker white
## 704 7.50 not low female nonsmoker white
## 705 6.31 not low female nonsmoker white
## 706 5.25 low male nonsmoker white
## 707 4.75 low female nonsmoker not white
## 708 7.25 not low male nonsmoker white
## 709 8.13 not low female nonsmoker white
## 710 9.25 not low male nonsmoker white
## 711 8.06 not low female nonsmoker white
## 712 6.63 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 713 7.13 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 714 6.38 not low female nonsmoker white
## 715 9.50 not low female nonsmoker white
## 716 7.13 not low female nonsmoker white
## 717 8.81 not low male nonsmoker white
## 718 7.88 not low male nonsmoker white
## 719 6.25 not low male nonsmoker white
## 720 8.00 not low female nonsmoker white
## 721 7.88 not low male nonsmoker white
## 722 10.38 not low male nonsmoker white
## 723 8.81 not low female nonsmoker white
## 724 6.50 not low female nonsmoker white
## 725 7.00 not low male nonsmoker white
## 726 8.19 not low male nonsmoker white
## 727 7.63 not low female nonsmoker white
## 728 7.19 not low female nonsmoker white
## 729 7.06 not low female nonsmoker white
## 730 6.00 not low female smoker white
## 731 7.06 not low female smoker white
## 732 8.13 not low male smoker white
## 733 1.31 low female nonsmoker white
## 734 2.88 low female nonsmoker not white
## 735 6.00 not low female nonsmoker white
## 736 5.94 not low female nonsmoker white
## 737 5.25 low female nonsmoker not white
## 738 4.75 low female smoker white
## 739 5.94 not low male smoker white
## 740 7.19 not low male nonsmoker white
## 741 4.75 low female nonsmoker not white
## 742 6.13 not low male nonsmoker white
## 743 9.38 not low male nonsmoker white
## 744 7.13 not low male nonsmoker white
## 745 7.38 not low male nonsmoker white
## 746 7.44 not low female nonsmoker white
## 747 5.81 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 748 9.13 not low female nonsmoker white
## 749 6.25 not low female nonsmoker white
## 750 8.50 not low female nonsmoker white
## 751 11.63 not low female nonsmoker white
## 752 6.75 not low female nonsmoker white
## 753 5.56 not low male nonsmoker white
## 754 6.00 not low female nonsmoker white
## 755 6.69 not low male nonsmoker white
## 756 9.50 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 757 8.88 not low male nonsmoker white
## 758 9.19 not low female nonsmoker white
## 759 9.31 not low male nonsmoker white
## 760 7.38 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 761 8.88 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 762 6.19 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 763 8.81 not low male nonsmoker white
## 764 7.31 not low female nonsmoker white
## 765 7.38 not low male nonsmoker white
## 766 5.00 low female nonsmoker white
## 767 9.25 not low male nonsmoker white
## 768 6.69 not low female nonsmoker white
## 769 6.81 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 770 3.00 low female nonsmoker white
## 771 4.63 low male nonsmoker white
## 772 5.56 not low male nonsmoker white
## 773 4.44 low female nonsmoker white
## 774 1.44 low female nonsmoker not white
## 775 1.50 low female nonsmoker white
## 776 5.06 low male nonsmoker white
## 777 4.44 low male smoker white
## 778 6.81 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 779 8.81 not low male nonsmoker white
## 780 6.56 not low male nonsmoker white
## 781 6.75 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 782 7.94 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 783 7.31 not low female nonsmoker white
## 784 6.44 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 785 3.94 low female nonsmoker not white
## 786 8.06 not low female nonsmoker white
## 787 9.25 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 788 7.38 not low female nonsmoker white
## 789 7.38 not low male nonsmoker white
## 790 7.56 not low male nonsmoker white
## 791 8.81 not low male nonsmoker white
## 792 6.00 not low male nonsmoker white
## 793 6.88 not low female nonsmoker white
## 794 8.06 not low male nonsmoker white
## 795 6.69 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 796 7.06 not low female nonsmoker white
## 797 6.88 not low male nonsmoker white
## 798 9.63 not low male nonsmoker white
## 799 7.88 not low male nonsmoker white
## 800 8.88 not low female nonsmoker white
## 801 7.81 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 802 7.38 not low female nonsmoker white
## 803 7.50 not low male nonsmoker white
## 804 7.31 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 805 8.25 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 806 6.56 not low male nonsmoker white
## 807 8.81 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 808 7.88 not low female nonsmoker white
## 809 8.31 not low female nonsmoker white
## 810 5.88 not low male nonsmoker white
## 811 8.63 not low male nonsmoker white
## 812 9.31 not low male nonsmoker white
## 813 7.88 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 814 9.63 not low female nonsmoker white
## 815 10.06 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 816 7.13 not low male nonsmoker white
## 817 6.81 not low male nonsmoker white
## 818 8.19 not low male smoker white
## 819 9.13 not low male smoker white
## 820 5.63 not low female nonsmoker white
## 821 6.56 not low female nonsmoker white
## 822 6.31 not low male smoker white
## 823 7.13 not low male nonsmoker white
## 824 8.19 not low female nonsmoker white
## 825 8.00 not low male nonsmoker white
## 826 8.63 not low female nonsmoker white
## 827 6.69 not low female nonsmoker white
## 828 6.38 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 829 8.50 not low female nonsmoker white
## 830 6.81 not low female nonsmoker white
## 831 7.88 not low female nonsmoker white
## 832 7.56 not low male nonsmoker white
## 833 7.25 not low male nonsmoker white
## 834 6.88 not low male nonsmoker white
## 835 8.50 not low male nonsmoker white
## 836 8.50 not low male nonsmoker white
## 837 4.75 low female nonsmoker not white
## 838 8.75 not low male nonsmoker white
## 839 6.44 not low female nonsmoker white
## 840 7.00 not low female nonsmoker white
## 841 7.25 not low female nonsmoker white
## 842 8.25 not low male nonsmoker white
## 843 8.50 not low male nonsmoker white
## 844 7.44 not low male nonsmoker white
## 845 7.75 not low female nonsmoker white
## 846 8.50 not low female nonsmoker white
## 847 8.13 not low male nonsmoker white
## 848 6.94 not low male nonsmoker white
## 849 7.25 not low male nonsmoker white
## 850 9.69 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 851 6.31 not low female nonsmoker white
## 852 6.75 not low male nonsmoker white
## 853 6.88 not low female nonsmoker white
## 854 8.75 not low male nonsmoker white
## 855 9.31 not low male nonsmoker white
## 856 7.88 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 857 7.63 not low female nonsmoker white
## 858 8.31 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 859 7.88 not low female nonsmoker white
## 860 7.56 not low female nonsmoker white
## 861 6.19 not low female nonsmoker white
## 862 7.94 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 863 7.19 not low male nonsmoker white
## 864 6.31 not low male nonsmoker white
## 865 4.69 low female nonsmoker white
## 866 3.81 low female nonsmoker white
## 867 2.88 low male nonsmoker white
## 868 10.13 not low male nonsmoker white
## 869 7.06 not low female nonsmoker white
## 870 8.56 not low male nonsmoker white
## 871 6.94 not low female nonsmoker white
## 872 8.81 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 873 8.44 not low female nonsmoker white
## 874 8.13 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 875 7.63 not low male nonsmoker white
## 876 8.44 not low male nonsmoker white
## 877 8.88 not low male nonsmoker white
## 878 8.25 not low female nonsmoker white
## 879 7.88 not low male nonsmoker white
## 880 7.31 not low female nonsmoker white
## 881 7.88 not low male nonsmoker white
## 882 7.50 not low female nonsmoker white
## 883 5.19 low female nonsmoker white
## 884 8.06 not low male nonsmoker white
## 885 8.94 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 886 7.69 not low male nonsmoker white
## 887 6.63 not low female nonsmoker white
## 888 7.63 not low male nonsmoker white
## 889 7.56 not low male nonsmoker white
## 890 6.38 not low female nonsmoker white
## 891 6.25 not low female nonsmoker white
## 892 7.13 not low female nonsmoker white
## 893 7.94 not low female nonsmoker white
## 894 6.44 not low female smoker white
## 895 5.63 not low male smoker white
## 896 6.50 not low female nonsmoker white
## 897 6.44 not low female nonsmoker white
## 898 8.69 not low male nonsmoker white
## 899 5.63 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 900 2.25 low male nonsmoker white
## 901 6.75 not low male nonsmoker white
## 902 1.63 low female nonsmoker white
## 903 8.88 not low female nonsmoker white
## 904 7.06 not low female nonsmoker white
## 905 8.81 not low male nonsmoker white
## 906 7.56 not low female nonsmoker white
## 907 9.19 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 908 6.19 not low female nonsmoker white
## 909 5.38 low female nonsmoker white
## 910 7.19 not low female nonsmoker white
## 911 6.75 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 912 7.38 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 913 6.06 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 914 6.88 not low male nonsmoker white
## 915 7.00 not low male nonsmoker white
## 916 8.56 not low male nonsmoker white
## 917 8.19 not low male nonsmoker white
## 918 7.00 not low female nonsmoker white
## 919 8.13 not low female nonsmoker white
## 920 9.13 not low female nonsmoker white
## 921 7.81 not low female nonsmoker white
## 922 7.00 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 923 8.25 not low male nonsmoker white
## 924 8.00 not low male nonsmoker white
## 925 10.25 not low female nonsmoker white
## 926 7.69 not low male nonsmoker white
## 927 7.06 not low female nonsmoker white
## 928 7.06 not low male smoker not white
## 929 5.38 low female smoker white
## 930 6.88 not low male smoker not white
## 931 3.25 low male nonsmoker white
## 932 4.00 low female nonsmoker white
## 933 4.13 low female nonsmoker white
## 934 5.13 low male nonsmoker white
## 935 9.88 not low male nonsmoker white
## 936 6.19 not low female nonsmoker white
## 937 7.81 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 938 8.75 not low male nonsmoker white
## 939 9.31 not low male nonsmoker white
## 940 7.00 not low female nonsmoker white
## 941 6.69 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 942 8.63 not low male nonsmoker white
## 943 8.50 not low male nonsmoker white
## 944 8.94 not low male nonsmoker white
## 945 6.31 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 946 7.25 not low female nonsmoker white
## 947 7.00 not low female nonsmoker white
## 948 7.94 not low male nonsmoker white
## 949 6.25 not low female nonsmoker white
## 950 7.94 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 951 8.31 not low female nonsmoker white
## 952 8.50 not low female nonsmoker white
## 953 8.38 not low male nonsmoker white
## 954 7.50 not low male smoker white
## 955 8.19 not low female smoker not white
## 956 4.94 low male nonsmoker white
## 957 5.94 not low male nonsmoker white
## 958 4.31 low male nonsmoker white
## 959 3.63 low male nonsmoker not white
## 960 8.75 not low male nonsmoker white
## 961 7.00 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 962 6.25 not low female nonsmoker white
## 963 8.94 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 964 8.38 not low male nonsmoker white
## 965 7.56 not low female nonsmoker white
## 966 7.75 not low female nonsmoker white
## 967 7.25 not low male nonsmoker white
## 968 10.13 not low female nonsmoker white
## 969 1.38 low female nonsmoker not white
## 970 5.50 low female nonsmoker white
## 971 2.19 low female smoker white
## 972 8.06 not low female nonsmoker white
## 973 7.81 not low female nonsmoker white
## 974 7.50 not low female nonsmoker white
## 975 7.19 not low female nonsmoker white
## 976 6.06 not low female smoker not white
## 977 6.75 not low male smoker white
## 978 5.50 low male smoker not white
## 979 7.31 not low male nonsmoker white
## 980 9.88 not low male nonsmoker <NA>
## 981 9.19 not low male nonsmoker white
## 982 8.13 not low male nonsmoker white
## 983 9.00 not low female nonsmoker white
## 984 7.44 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 985 5.69 not low male nonsmoker white
## 986 7.81 not low female nonsmoker white
## 987 6.69 not low male nonsmoker white
## 988 3.63 low female <NA> white
## 989 6.38 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 990 7.44 not low male nonsmoker white
## 991 5.88 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 992 7.69 not low male nonsmoker white
## 993 7.56 not low female nonsmoker white
## 994 6.56 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 995 5.69 not low female nonsmoker not white
## 996 8.44 not low male nonsmoker not white
## 997 6.19 not low female nonsmoker white
## 998 6.94 not low female nonsmoker white
## 999 4.56 low female nonsmoker not white
## 1000 7.13 not low female nonsmoker whiteAs you review the variable summaries, consider which variables are categorical and which are numerical. For numerical variables, are there outliers? If you aren’t sure or want to take a closer look at the data, make a graph.
The variables with only counts in their summaries are categorical. Weeks, visits, gained, and weight have outliers.
hist(nc$fage)
hist(nc$mage)
hist(nc$weeks)
hist(nc$visits)
hist(nc$gained)
hist(nc$weight)
Consider the possible relationship between a mother’s smoking habit and the weight of her baby. Plotting the data is a useful first step because it helps us quickly visualize trends, identify strong associations, and develop research questions.
- Make a side-by-side boxplot of
habitandweight. What does the plot highlight about the relationship between these two variables?
It seems that the birth weight for mothers that do not smoke is higher than the birth weight for mothers who smoke.
plot(nc$habit, nc$weight)
The box plots show how the medians of the two distributions compare, but we can also compare the means of the distributions using the following function to split the weight variable into the habit groups, then take the mean of each using the mean function.
by(nc, nc$habit, function(x){
mean.weight <- mean(x$weight)
})## nc$habit: nonsmoker
## [1] 7.144273
## --------------------------------------------------------
## nc$habit: smoker
## [1] 6.82873There is an observed difference, but is this difference statistically significant? In order to answer this question we will conduct a hypothesis test .
Inference
- Check if the conditions necessary for inference are satisfied. Note that you will need to obtain sample sizes to check the conditions. You can compute the group size using the same
bycommand above but replacingmeanwithlength.
by(nc, nc$habit, function(x){
length.weight <- length(x$weight)
})## nc$habit: nonsmoker
## [1] 873
## --------------------------------------------------------
## nc$habit: smoker
## [1] 126- Write the hypotheses for testing if the average weights of babies born to smoking and non-smoking mothers are different.
H0: mean of smoker = mean of non-smoker Ha: mean of smoker != mean of non-smoker
Next, we introduce a new function, inference, that we will use for conducting hypothesis tests and constructing confidence intervals.
library(DATA606)## Loading required package: shiny## Loading required package: openintro## Please visit openintro.org for free statistics materials##
## Attaching package: 'openintro'## The following object is masked _by_ '.GlobalEnv':
##
## normTail## The following objects are masked from 'package:datasets':
##
## cars, trees## Loading required package: OIdata## Loading required package: RCurl## Loading required package: bitops## Loading required package: maps## Loading required package: ggplot2##
## Attaching package: 'ggplot2'## The following object is masked from 'package:openintro':
##
## diamonds## Loading required package: markdown##
## Welcome to CUNY DATA606 Statistics and Probability for Data Analytics
## This package is designed to support this course. The text book used
## is OpenIntro Statistics, 3rd Edition. You can read this by typing
## vignette('os3') or visit www.OpenIntro.org.
##
## The getLabs() function will return a list of the labs available.
##
## The demo(package='DATA606') will list the demos that are available.##
## Attaching package: 'DATA606'## The following object is masked _by_ '.GlobalEnv':
##
## inference## The following object is masked from 'package:utils':
##
## demoinference(y = nc$weight, x = nc$habit, est = "mean", type = "ht", null = 0,
alternative = "twosided", method = "theoretical")## Response variable: numerical, Explanatory variable: categorical
## Difference between two means
## Summary statistics:
## n_nonsmoker = 873, mean_nonsmoker = 7.1443, sd_nonsmoker = 1.5187
## n_smoker = 126, mean_smoker = 6.8287, sd_smoker = 1.3862## Observed difference between means (nonsmoker-smoker) = 0.3155
##
## H0: mu_nonsmoker - mu_smoker = 0
## HA: mu_nonsmoker - mu_smoker != 0
## Standard error = 0.134
## Test statistic: Z = 2.359
## p-value = 0.0184
Let’s pause for a moment to go through the arguments of this custom function. The first argument is y, which is the response variable that we are interested in: nc$weight. The second argument is the explanatory variable, x, which is the variable that splits the data into two groups, smokers and non-smokers: nc$habit. The third argument, est, is the parameter we’re interested in: "mean" (other options are "median", or "proportion".) Next we decide on the type of inference we want: a hypothesis test ("ht") or a confidence interval ("ci"). When performing a hypothesis test, we also need to supply the null value, which in this case is 0, since the null hypothesis sets the two population means equal to each other. The alternative hypothesis can be "less", "greater", or "twosided". Lastly, the method of inference can be "theoretical" or "simulation" based.
- Change the
typeargument to"ci"to construct and record a confidence interval for the difference between the weights of babies born to smoking and non-smoking mothers.
inference(y = nc$weight, x = nc$habit, est = "mean", type = "ci", null = 0,
alternative = "twosided", method = "theoretical")## Response variable: numerical, Explanatory variable: categorical
## Difference between two means
## Summary statistics:
## n_nonsmoker = 873, mean_nonsmoker = 7.1443, sd_nonsmoker = 1.5187
## n_smoker = 126, mean_smoker = 6.8287, sd_smoker = 1.3862
## Observed difference between means (nonsmoker-smoker) = 0.3155
##
## Standard error = 0.1338
## 95 % Confidence interval = ( 0.0534 , 0.5777 )By default the function reports an interval for (\(\mu_{nonsmoker} - \mu_{smoker}\)) . We can easily change this order by using the order argument:
inference(y = nc$weight, x = nc$habit, est = "mean", type = "ci",null = 0,
alternative = "twosided", method = "theoretical",
order = c("smoker","nonsmoker"))## Response variable: numerical, Explanatory variable: categorical
## Difference between two means
## Summary statistics:
## n_smoker = 126, mean_smoker = 6.8287, sd_smoker = 1.3862
## n_nonsmoker = 873, mean_nonsmoker = 7.1443, sd_nonsmoker = 1.5187
## Observed difference between means (smoker-nonsmoker) = -0.3155
##
## Standard error = 0.1338
## 95 % Confidence interval = ( -0.5777 , -0.0534 )On your own
- Calculate a 95% confidence interval for the average length of pregnancies (
weeks) and interpret it in context. Note that since you’re doing inference on a single population parameter, there is no explanatory variable, so you can omit thexvariable from the function.
We are 95% confident that the true population average length of pregnancies lies between 38.15 and 38.52.
inference(y = nc$weeks, est = "mean", type = "ci", method = "theoretical")## Single mean
## Summary statistics:
## mean = 38.3347 ; sd = 2.9316 ; n = 998
## Standard error = 0.0928
## 95 % Confidence interval = ( 38.1528 , 38.5165 )- Calculate a new confidence interval for the same parameter at the 90% confidence level. You can change the confidence level by adding a new argument to the function:
conflevel = 0.90.
We are 90% confident that the true population average length of pregnancies lies between 38.18 and 38.48.
inference(y = nc$weeks, est = "mean", type = "ci", method = "theoretical", conflevel = 0.90)## Single mean
## Summary statistics:
## mean = 38.3347 ; sd = 2.9316 ; n = 998
## Standard error = 0.0928
## 90 % Confidence interval = ( 38.182 , 38.4873 )- Conduct a hypothesis test evaluating whether the average weight gained by younger mothers is different than the average weight gained by mature mothers.
Our hypothesis test has p = 0.85 > 0.05, so we fail to reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there may be no significant difference in the average weight gained by younger moms as compared to mature moms.
inference(y = nc$weight, x = nc$mature, est = "mean", type = "ht", null = 0,
alternative = "twosided", method = "theoretical")## Response variable: numerical, Explanatory variable: categorical
## Difference between two means
## Summary statistics:
## n_mature mom = 133, mean_mature mom = 7.1256, sd_mature mom = 1.6591
## n_younger mom = 867, mean_younger mom = 7.0972, sd_younger mom = 1.4855## Observed difference between means (mature mom-younger mom) = 0.0283
##
## H0: mu_mature mom - mu_younger mom = 0
## HA: mu_mature mom - mu_younger mom != 0
## Standard error = 0.152
## Test statistic: Z = 0.186
## p-value = 0.8526
- Now, a non-inference task: Determine the age cutoff for younger and mature mothers. Use a method of your choice, and explain how your method works.
The age cutoff for younger and mature mothers is 35. That is, younger mothers go up to and including age 34, and mature mothers start from age 35.
younger <- subset(nc, mature == "younger mom")
max(younger$mage)## [1] 34older <- subset(nc, mature == "mature mom")
min(older$mage)## [1] 35- Pick a pair of numerical and categorical variables and come up with a research question evaluating the relationship between these variables. Formulate the question in a way that it can be answered using a hypothesis test and/or a confidence interval. Answer your question using the
inferencefunction, report the statistical results, and also provide an explanation in plain language.
Question: Is there a statistically significant difference between the mean visits of younger and more mature mothers?
Our p-value from our hypothesis test is 0.15 > 0.05, so we fail to reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there is no significant difference in the mean number of vists for young and mature mothers.
inference(y = nc$visits, x = nc$mature, est = "mean", type = "ht", null = 0,
alternative = "twosided", method = "theoretical")## Response variable: numerical, Explanatory variable: categorical
## Difference between two means
## Summary statistics:
## n_mature mom = 131, mean_mature mom = 12.6107, sd_mature mom = 4.3793
## n_younger mom = 860, mean_younger mom = 12.0279, sd_younger mom = 3.8832## Observed difference between means (mature mom-younger mom) = 0.5828
##
## H0: mu_mature mom - mu_younger mom = 0
## HA: mu_mature mom - mu_younger mom != 0
## Standard error = 0.405
## Test statistic: Z = 1.439
## p-value = 0.15
This is a product of OpenIntro that is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported. This lab was adapted for OpenIntro by Mine Çetinkaya-Rundel from a lab written by the faculty and TAs of UCLA Statistics.