Introduction

People strive to promote or protect the prestige and status of their own group relative to other groups because group evaluation is self-evaluation. People do this because one of the most basic human motives is for self-enhancement and selfesteem (Sedikides & Strube, 1997), and in salient group contexts, the self in self-enhancement and self-esteem is the collective self, social identity (Abrams & Hogg, 1988; Rubin & Hewstone, 1998). [2]

Interracial marriages by the numbers

According to data from the U.S Census Bureau’s Aerican Community Survey (ACS) in 2008-2010, interracial marraiges, 15% of new marriages in the US were interracial. More than double the reported marriages from 1980 ACS data [1]. Of these marriages 9% of whites, 17% of blacks, 26% of Hispanics and 28% of Asians married out. The most common interracial marraige occured between Hispanic and white individuals at 42% followed by Asian and white individuals at 15%, multiracial and white at 12% and white and black at 11%. But these marraiges varied widely within gender patterns [1].

Intermarriage and gender patterns

Compared to 9% of black female newlyweds, 24% of black male newlyweds married outside their race. This pattern was inverse for Asians. Among Asians, 36% of female Asian newlyweds married outside their race compared to 17% of male Asian newlyweds [1]. Although Hispanic and white interracial marriages are most common, there was no difference in marraige rates between genders.

Intermarriage and earnings. (Copied)

Some of these differences appear to reflect the overall characteristics of different groups in society at large, and some may be a result of a selection process. For example, white/Asian newlyweds of 2008 through 2010 have significantly higher median combined annual earnings (70,952) than do any other pairing, including both white/white (60,000) and Asian/Asian ($62,000). When it comes to educational characteristics, more than half of white newlyweds who marry Asians have a college degree, compared with roughly a third of white newlyweds who married whites. Among Hispanics and blacks, newlyweds who married whites tend to have higher educational attainment than do those who married within their own racial or ethnic group.

Earnings of interracial marriages between race and gender

Earnings of interracial marriages between race and gender

Couples formed between an Asian husband and a white wife topped the median earning list among all newlyweds in 2008-2010 ($71,800). During this period, white male newlyweds who married Asian, Hispanic or black spouses had higher combined earnings than did white male newlyweds who married a white spouse. As for white female newlyweds, those who married a Hispanic or black husband had somewhat lower combined earnings than those who “married in,” while those who married an Asian husband had significantly higher combined earnings.

Some noticeable gender patterns: In addition to Asian men, all intermarried white male newlyweds, as well as black and Hispanic newlyweds who married a white woman, have higher combined earnings with their spouses than their counterparts who married in. Combined median earnings for Hispanic grooms with a white wife are 53,000, but only about 35,600 for Hispanic grooms who married a Hispanic wife. Similarly, combined couple earnings for black grooms who married a white wife (around 52,700) are higher than blacks who married in ($47,700). The earning difference is less significant for white grooms, but those who married a Hispanic or black wife still have slightly higher combined earnings with their wife than their counterparts who married a white wife.

It is a somewhat different story for brides: Asian brides who married a white husband have higher combined earnings than their counterparts who married an Asian husband. Hispanic and black brides who married a white husband also have significantly higher combined earnings with their husbands (around $61,ooo) than their counterparts who married within their own racial or ethnic group (less than 48,000). White brides who married Hispanic or black husbands, on the other hand, have slightly lower combined earnings than their counterparts who married a white husband. However, combined earnings for white brides with an Asian husband are much higher than for white brides who married in.

Education of interracial marraiges between race and gender

Education of interracial marraiges between race and gender

Why are these gender patterns found in White/Asian and White/Black marraiges, but not found in White/Hispanic marriages?

Past research

Explanations for gender patterns

Lower status within-ingroup

However,having a valued social identity and belonging to a prestigious high status group has, in salient intergroup comparison situations, a more generally positive effect on self-esteem [2]

Effects of ingroup and outgroup evaluations

Research has shown that respect from ingroup members induce positive emotion and enhance collective self-esteem, but the same effect is not seen when the source of respect is from outgroup members[3].

It is important for people to know they are respected by the right people because it impacts an individual’s self-image, but also confirms the validity of the salient self-categorization, while respect from an outgroup may be seen as irrelevant because the feedback is outside of the individuals salient-self categorization and may also be a indicator that the individual is not seen as a member of their prescribed ingroup[3].

This makes sense that individuals do want to be valued and respected by the people that they value and respect, and postive views of the self from members who are not seen as respected are seen as irrelevant. This holds even when the ingroup has given negative evaluations of an individual, and the outgroup has given positive evaluations of the same individual. Participants still seen evaluation from the outgroup as irrelevant [3].

But the presented focused heavily on rival groups and groups that an individual had no option of switching. Do these groups really represent how individual categorize themselves in society? What if the groups were both equally respected? What if there was a possiblity to identify with both groups or switch between groups? How would positive evaluations from an outgroup be perceived then? Possibly what we may see is that it motivates an individual to surround themselves with a different group.

Self-enhancement strategies

Although possession of a devalued or stigmatized social identity can depress self-esteem, people have an enormous capacity to buffer themselves from this consequence (e.g., Crocker, Major & Steele, 1998). [2]

Individual Mobility

Low ingroup identification

The results of the study show that low identifiers more strongly desired individual mobility compared to high identifiers, independent of the permeability of the group boundaries [5 copied. Ellemers, Spear, & Doosje, 1997]

Low identifiers use individual strategies to cope with ingroup threats, such as establishing psychological distance from the group (and eventually leaving the group), downward comparison, social creativity, or individual mobility. [6 copied]

While it is true that the relationships between ingroup identification and commitment to collective actions are mediated by additional factors (e.g. permeability of intergroup boundaries, stability and legitimacy of intergroup differentials etc.) (Ellemers, Doosje, van Knippenberg, &Wilke, 1992; Ellemers, Spears, & Doosje, 1997;Mummenday, Klink, Mielke, Wenzel, & Blank, 1999),ingroup identification remains one of the most important determinants in the choice of coping strategies (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Hinkle & Brown, 1990; Branscombe & Wann, 1994; Turner & Reynolds, 2001). [6 copied]

For instance, Doosje, Spears, and Ellemers (2002) found that whereas low identifiers only express solidarity with their group to the extent that the status of the group is favourable to their interests, high identifiers maintain commitment to their group even when the group is faced with a bleak and uncertain future. [6]

Low just-world beliefs

We would expect that people who adhere to just-world beliefs would accept situations that are negative to ingroup interests without engaging in any individual or collective coping strategy [6]

High meritocracy belief

Meritocracy is the belief in personal and individual agency.This belief serves to divert attention from the material and structural roots of inequality and sanctions a psychological view of class distinctions (Gillies, 2005). Faced with situations where group membership contributes negatively to individual interests, subjects with strong beliefs in meritocracy are expected to be inclined to leave the group and join other groups that better serve their interests. [6]

High Social dominance orientation

SD theory (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999) proposes that society contains ideologies that either promote or attenuate group-based hierarchies.SD orientation is defined as ‘the orientation expressing one’s general support of group-based systems of social stratification’ (Sidanius, Levin, & Pratto, 1998, p. 138). [6]

SD orientation is more frequently present among high status group members. [6]

This variable has a relevant influence on intergroup biases. These latter are expected to be stronger in subjects with a high SD orientation (Gaertner & Insko, 2000; Sidanius, Levin, Liu, & Pratto, 2000). Although the literature about the relation between SD orientation and intergroup biases is extensive (Federico, 1998; Pratto, 1999; Jost & Thompson, 2000; Pratto & Shih, 2000; Hew stone et al., 2002), studies analyzing the relation between SD orientation and specific coping strategies with which people face groups are relatively scarce. [6]

The second group (terminal node 2) with lowest scores on the social compe tition scale was characterized by high group identification but also by middle scores in meritocracy and SDO, and high scores on the JWB. [6].

In line with previous findings, we have found that group identification is the most importance factor that stimulates this disposition. However, it was the combination of high group identification and low meritocracy and social dominance orientation that appeared more strongly associated with this disposition to social competition. [6]

Ethnic Stereotypes

The argument we wish to make is that race is used as a heuristic cue to status and resource possession and that the use of this cue has implications for mate preferences (see Wilson & Jacobson, 1995, for a related argument). [4 copied]

White

People can accurately rank Whites as having the highest status and most resources compared to other racial groups in the US [4 copied]

Ideal social situation

Proposed Method

IV:

DV: - Willingness to date x,y,z - how likely measure

Discussion

Research can bring understanding on when individuals de-identify(lower salience) with an ingroup and begin identifying with an outgroup. Stereotypes can provide information into which outgroups will be more accepting of new group membership and high status within the outgroup.

Research can explain how group membership influences intergroup interactions through perceived group norms.

Research can explain motivations to deviate from group norms.

Images

Differences bettwen interacial and intraracial marraiges

Differences bettwen interacial and intraracial marraiges

Interracial Marriages by region

Interracial Marriages by region

Likely to be in their first-time marriage

Likely to be in their first-time marriage

Age difference of newlyweds

Age difference of newlyweds