Table 1: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Suspected Nipah Virus Patients

Table 1: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Suspected Nipah Virus Patients
Socio-Demographic Variable N = 1501
Age (years)
    <18 14 (9.3%)
    >60 4 (2.7%)
    18–30 76 (51%)
    31–45 43 (29%)
    46–60 13 (8.7%)
Gender
    Male 112 (75%)
    Woman 37 (25%)
Marital Status
    Married 76 (51%)
    Separated/divorced 2 (1.3%)
    Single 64 (43%)
    Widow/Widower 8 (5.3%)
Educational Qualification
    :Uneducated 28 (19%)
    Bachelor's degree or above 17 (11%)
    Higher Secondary 36 (24%)
    Primary 23 (15%)
    Secondary 45 (30%)
Occupation
    Businessman 39 (26%)
    Day laborer 21 (14%)
    Employee 25 (17%)
    Farmer 27 (18%)
    Health worker 1 (0.7%)
    Housewife 14 (9.3%)
    Other 5 (3.3%)
    Student 18 (12%)
Monthly Family Income (BDT)
    <10,000 40 (27%)
    >40,000 8 (5.3%)
    10,000–20,000 65 (43%)
    20,000–40,000 37 (25%)
Living Style
    City 55 (37%)
    Semi-city 52 (35%)
    Village 42 (28%)
Number of Family Members
    >7 14 (9.3%)
    ≤4 64 (43%)
    5–7 72 (48%)
Currently Pregnant (Women Only)
    No 26 (42%)
    Not applicable 23 (37%)
    Yes 13 (21%)
1 n (%)

Table 2: Exposure History and Potential Risk Factors for Nipah Virus Infection

Table 2: Exposure History and Potential Risk Factors for Nipah Virus Infection
Exposure History Variable N = 1501
Raw Date Palm Sap Consumption
    No 35 (23%)
    Not sure. 15 (10%)
    Yes 100 (67%)
Frequency of Sap Consumption
    >3 45 (31%)
    1 14 (9.5%)
    2–3 45 (31%)
    I don't know. 43 (29%)
Lid/Cover Used During Collection
    I don't know. 73 (50%)
    No 41 (28%)
    Yes 32 (22%)
Sap Consumption Location
    Home 39 (27%)
    Market 74 (51%)
    Other 32 (22%)
Consumed Bat/Bird-Bitten Fruit
    No 48 (32%)
    Not sure. 65 (44%)
    Yes 35 (24%)
Fruit Washed Before Eating
    I don't know. 40 (27%)
    No 43 (29%)
    Yes 66 (44%)
Bat Roosts/Large Trees Near Home
    I don't know. 60 (40%)
    No 46 (31%)
    Yes 43 (29%)
Contact with Suspected/Confirmed NiV Patient
    I don't know. 74 (50%)
    No 41 (28%)
    Yes 32 (22%)
Relationship with Index Patient
    Family member 21 (20%)
    Neighbor 36 (34%)
    Other 21 (20%)
    Went to provide healthcare/care 27 (26%)
Type of Contact with NiV Patient
    Attending a funeral/burial 9 (8.7%)
    Exposure to bodily fluids/spit/vomit 25 (24%)
    Feeding/cleaning (caregiving) 29 (28%)
    Living in the same room 13 (13%)
    Visiting the hospital 27 (26%)
PPE/Mask Use During Contact
    I don't know. 45 (43%)
    No 35 (33%)
    Yes 25 (24%)
Animal Keeping at Home/Nearby
    ☐ Cow/Goat 38 (27%)
    ☐ Don't know 18 (13%)
    ☐ No 32 (22%)
    ☐ Poultry/Chicken 39 (27%)
    Pig 16 (11%)
Inter-District Travel (Last 21 Days)
    No 138 (95%)
    Yes 8 (5.5%)
Travel Destination
    Barisal 1 (20%)
    Bhola 1 (20%)
    Chittagong 1 (20%)
    Faridpur 1 (20%)
    Rangpur 1 (20%)
Similar Illness in Household/Neighborhood
    I don't know. 38 (28%)
    No 91 (68%)
    Yes 5 (3.7%)
Number of Similarly Ill Persons
    0 1 (17%)
    1 3 (50%)
    2 2 (33%)
Relationship with Similarly Ill Persons
    0 1 (17%)
    1 1 (17%)
    3 1 (17%)
    Brother 1 (17%)
    Mother 1 (17%)
    Sister 1 (17%)
1 n (%)

Table 3: Clinical Features and Presentation Characteristics of Suspected Nipah Virus Patients

Table 3: Clinical Features and Presentation Characteristics of Suspected Nipah Virus Patients
Clinical Feature Variable N = 1501
Symptom-to-Admission Interval (days)
    : ≤2 days 61 (41%)
    >5 days 27 (18%)
    3–5 days 60 (41%)
Prior Treatment Facility
    District 35 (23%)
    Nowhere 46 (31%)
    Other 4 (2.7%)
    Private/Clinic 28 (19%)
    Upazila 36 (24%)
Prior Antibiotic/Antiviral/Steroid Use
    I don't know. 61 (41%)
    No 57 (38%)
    Yes 31 (21%)
Reason for Delayed Presentation
    Delay in recognizing the disease 54 (36%)
    Other 43 (29%)
    Was admitted to the first center 52 (35%)
Principal Symptoms at Presentation
    Body ache 9 (6.0%)
    Cough 5 (3.4%)
    Diarrhea 4 (2.7%)
    Fever 81 (54%)
    Headache 18 (12%)
    Other 6 (4.0%)
    Shortness of breath 12 (8.1%)
    Sore throat _ 6 (4.0%)
    Vomiting 8 (5.4%)
Neurological Symptoms
    Confusion 36 (24%)
    No 50 (34%)
    Seizures 23 (16%)
    Stiff neck 15 (10%)
    Unconsciousness/decreased consciousness 23 (16%)
Clinical Severity at Admission
    Medium 58 (39%)
    Serious 35 (24%)
    Stable 55 (37%)
Comorbid Conditions
    Breathing difficulties/asthma/COPD 11 (7.5%)
    Diabetes 16 (11%)
    High blood pressure 33 (22%)
    I don't know. 21 (14%)
    Immunosuppression 5 (3.4%)
    Kidney disease 20 (14%)
    Liver disease 21 (14%)
    No 20 (14%)
1 n (%)

Table 4: Laboratory Testing and Diagnostic Characteristics of Suspected Nipah Virus Patients

Table 4: Laboratory Testing and Diagnostic Characteristics of Suspected Nipah Virus Patients
Laboratory & Diagnostic Variable N = 1501
Laboratory Testing Performed for Nipah
    No 46 (31%)
    Not known 16 (11%)
    Yes 86 (58%)
Type of Diagnostic Test
    ELISA/IgM 54 (38%)
    Other: ____ 27 (19%)
    RT-PCR 63 (44%)
Specimen Type
    Blood 64 (44%)
    CSF 17 (12%)
    Other 16 (11%)
    Swab/sputum 49 (34%)
Laboratory Test Result
    Negative 32 (22%)
    Not known 16 (11%)
    Pending/No report 37 (25%)
    Positive 61 (42%)
Other Diagnostic/Differential Tests
    No 2 (100%)
1 n (%)

Table 5: Hospital Management and Outcome Characteristics of Suspected Nipah Virus Patients

Table 5: Hospital Management and Outcome Characteristics of Suspected Nipah Virus Patients
Hospital Management Variable N = 1501
Level of Prior Hospital Admission
    District 47 (32%)
    Medical College/Tertiary 41 (28%)
    Upazila 58 (40%)
ICU Admission
    No 113 (78%)
    Yes 32 (22%)
Isolation Measures Implemented
    Cohort/Isolation Ward 24 (21%)
    General ward 31 (26%)
    I don't know. 35 (30%)
    Single room 27 (23%)
PPE Use by Healthcare Workers
    Always 12 (10%)
    Not known 36 (31%)
    Not used 35 (30%)
    Sometimes 34 (29%)
Respiratory Support Provided
    Breathing assistance: 19 (14%)
    HFNC/NIV 16 (12%)
    Not needed. 57 (43%)
    Oxygen 30 (23%)
    Ventilation 10 (7.6%)
Duration of Hospital Stay (days)
    >7 36 (25%)
    ≤3 20 (14%)
    4–7 79 (54%)
    Still enrolled 11 (7.5%)
Patient Outcome
    Death 6 (4.1%)
    Discharged in good health/improvement 108 (73%)
    Referred 15 (10%)
    Still enrolled 18 (12%)
Referral Destination
    Option 1 4 (100%)
In-Hospital Complications
    Encephalitis 30 (21%)
    N/A 50 (35%)
    Other 16 (11%)
    Respiratory failure 37 (26%)
    Shock 10 (7.0%)
1 n (%)

Supplementary Table S1: Community Awareness and Infection Prevention Knowledge Among Suspected Nipah Virus Patients

Supplementary Table S1: Community Awareness and Infection Prevention Knowledge Among Suspected Nipah Virus Patients
Awareness Variable N = 1501
Prior Awareness of Nipah Virus
    No 26 (18%)
    Yes 121 (82%)
Source of Nipah Awareness
    Health worker 22 (16%)
    Other: 3 (2.1%)
    School/Community 34 (24%)
    Social media 32 (23%)
    TV/Radio 50 (35%)
Received Infection Prevention Counselling
    I don't remember. 47 (32%)
    No 43 (29%)
    Yes 57 (39%)
Infection Prevention Practices
    FALSE 0 (NA%)
    TRUE 0 (NA%)
1 n (%)