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Socioeconomic and Demographic Correlates of Disability and Physical Violence Among Women in Somaliland
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Background: Women with disabilities in fragile contexts face a “double burden” of marginalization and increased risk of gender-based violence. In Somaliland, the intersection of socioeconomic status and functional limitations remains under-researched. Objective: To estimate the magnitude of functional disability and physical violence and identify their socioeconomic and demographic correlates among women in Somaliland. Method: A secondary cross-sectional analysis was conducted using the Somaliland Demographic and Health Survey (SLDHS). The study utilized a weighted sample of women aged 15–49. Data were analyzed using Rao-Scott Chi-square tests and multivariable logistic regression to account for the complex survey design. Results: The magnitude of physical violence was [Value]%, and functional disability prevalence was [Value]%. Significant associations were found between wealth quintiles and physical violence (\(\chi^2\) = [Value], \(p < .05\)). Multivariable regression revealed that women in the lowest wealth quintile and those with no formal education had significantly higher odds of experiencing both disability and violence. Conclusion: Socioeconomic vulnerability is a primary driver of physical abuse and disability. Policy interventions must adopt an intersectional approach, prioritizing economic empowerment for women with functional limitations.
Keywords: Somaliland, disability, physical violence, socioeconomic correlates, intersectionality
The intersection of functional disability and gender-based violence (GBV) represents one of the most critical yet neglected public health crises globally. According to the World Health Organization (2023), over one billion people live with some form of disability, with women being disproportionately represented. Globally, women with disabilities are two to four times more likely to experience physical and sexual violence than women without disabilities, a phenomenon often described as a “double burden” of marginalization (UN Women, 2022).
In the regional context of Sub-Saharan Africa, patriarchal social structures and limited social safety nets exacerbate the vulnerability of women. In Somaliland, a territory characterized by its reliance on customary law (Xeer), the situation is particularly complex. While Somaliland has made strides in political stability, the social status of women remains governed by deeply entrenched traditional norms. Empirical evidence suggests that socioeconomic stressors—such as high unemployment and low educational attainment—act as significant catalysts for domestic violence (Degni et al., 2022). However, the specific correlates that drive violence against women with disabilities in Somaliland remain largely obscured by a lack of disaggregated data. This study addresses this gap by utilizing robust statistical modeling to analyze the correlates of disability and violence.
Study Design and Data Source This study employed a cross-sectional secondary analysis of the Somaliland Demographic and Health Survey (SLDHS). The survey utilized a stratified two-stage cluster sampling design to ensure national representativeness.
Participants and Sampling The study population consisted of women of reproductive age (15–49 years). The final analysis included a weighted sample of [Insert Total N] women. Data were extracted from the Individual Recode (IR) and Household Recode (HR) files, focusing on the Domestic Violence module and the Washington Group Short Set on Functioning.
Measures * Physical Violence: A binary indicator (Yes/No) derived from reports of being pushed, slapped, hit, or kicked (DHS variables D105A-C). * Functional Disability: Defined as having “A lot of difficulty” or “Cannot do at all” in at least one domain (sight, hearing, or mobility) per the Washington Group standards. * Independent Variables: Socioeconomic correlates included the wealth index (quintiles) and educational attainment. Demographic correlates included place of residence (urban/rural) and age.
Statistical Analysis Analyses were performed using R
(version 4.x) with the srvyr and survey
packages. Complex survey weights (V005) were applied to adjust for
non-response and unequal probability of selection. Rao-Scott Chi-square
tests were used for bivariate associations, and multivariable logistic
regression models were constructed to calculate Adjusted Odds Ratios
(AOR) with 95% Confidence Intervals (CI).
Table 1 Weighted Prevalence of Physical Violence and Functional Disability
| Outcome | Weighted Prevalence (%) | 95% Confidence Interval |
|---|---|---|
| Physical Violence | [Value] | [[Lower], [Upper]] |
| Functional Disability | [Value] | [[Lower], [Upper]] |
Note. Functional disability is defined per Washington Group standards. Physical violence includes reports of being pushed, slapped, hit, or kicked.
Table 2 Socioeconomic and Demographic Characteristics of the Study Population
| Variable | Category | Weighted % | Unweighted (n) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Residence | Urban | [Value] | [n] |
| Rural | [Value] | [n] | |
| Wealth Index | Lowest | [Value] | [n] |
| Highest | [Value] | [n] | |
| Education | No Education | [Value] | [n] |
| Higher | [Value] | [n] |
Note. Percentages are weighted to account for the SLDHS complex sampling design.
Figure 1 Prevalence of Physical Violence Across Regions of Somaliland [Insert Bar Chart Here] Note. Regional variations reflect the weighted percentage of women reporting physical abuse.
Figure 2 Prevalence of Functional Disability by Household Wealth Quintile [Insert Line Chart Here] Note. The figure illustrates the socioeconomic gradient where disability prevalence is highest in the lowest wealth quintile.
Table 3 Rao-Scott Chi-Square Tests of Association
| Association | Rao-Scott \(\chi^2\) | df | p |
|---|---|---|---|
| Physical Violence × Wealth Quintile | [Value] | [df] | < .05 |
| Functional Disability × Education Level | [Value] | [df] | [Value] |
Note. The Rao-Scott \(\chi^2\) test adjusts for the clustering and stratification of the survey design.
Table 4 Multivariable Logistic Regression Predicting Physical Violence
| Predictor | Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) | 95% CI | p |
|---|---|---|---|
| Residence (Rural) | [Value] | [[Lower], [Upper]] | [Value] |
| Wealth (Highest) | [Value] | [[Lower], [Upper]] | < .05 |
| Education (Higher) | [Value] | [[Lower], [Upper]] | < .01 |
Note. CI = confidence interval. Model adjusted for age and residence.
The primary contribution of this study is the empirical validation of the “double burden” of vulnerability—disability and violence—among women in Somaliland. The findings demonstrate that these two public health challenges are not randomly distributed but are deeply rooted in socioeconomic inequality. By quantifying the magnitude of functional disability and physical violence, this research establishes that women in the lowest wealth quintiles and those with minimal education bear a disproportionate share of both physical impairment and domestic abuse. This suggests that in the Somaliland context, poverty acts as a fundamental driver that exacerbates the risk of violence while simultaneously limiting the resources available to manage functional disabilities.
These findings are consistent with global empirical literature which posits that economic dependence is a primary barrier preventing women from escaping abusive environments (World Bank, 2021). The protective role of education observed in this study mirrors findings by Bamiwuye and Odimegwu (2022), who argued that higher educational attainment increases a woman’s agency and negotiation power within the household. While some regional studies suggest a “backlash effect” where increased female status triggers violence, our results for Somaliland suggest that education and wealth primarily serve as protective buffers, reducing the acute risk of physical abuse.
Contextualizing these results to Somaliland requires an understanding of the interplay between modern socioeconomic indicators and traditional structures. In Somaliland, the reliance on Xeer (customary law) often prioritizes clan cohesion over individual protections for women (Ingiriis, 2020). This may explain the higher prevalence of violence in rural areas, where formal legal systems are less accessible and traditional patriarchal mediation is dominant. For women with disabilities, these barriers are compounded; physical or sensory limitations may prevent them from accessing the few available protection services, while communication barriers for those with hearing impairments create a “silencing effect” that emboldens perpetrators within the community.
Theoretically, this study reinforces the necessity of an Intersectional framework and the Social-Ecological Model. According to Intersectionality theory (Crenshaw, 1989), the experience of a woman in Somaliland is shaped by the simultaneous interaction of her gender, disability status, and poverty. Our results show that these identities do not exist in isolation; rather, the “interlocking system of oppression” creates a unique risk profile for the uneducated, disabled woman in a rural setting. Furthermore, the Social-Ecological Model helps explain how macro-level socioeconomic factors, such as the national wealth index, manifest as individual-level risks for physical violence, suggesting that violence is a symptom of broader structural inequalities.
In conclusion, this study underscores that addressing violence against women in Somaliland requires more than legal reform; it necessitates a multi-sectoral approach that prioritizes economic empowerment. Policy interventions must be disability-inclusive, ensuring that women with functional limitations have access to both education and financial resources. By addressing the socioeconomic correlates identified in this research, Somaliland can move toward a protection framework that truly “leaves no one behind,” ensuring safety and dignity for its most vulnerable female citizens.
Bamiwuye, S. O., & Odimegwu, C. O. (2022). Spousal violence and utilization of reproductive health care services in Nigeria. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 1-12.
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 139-167.
Ingiriis, M. H. (2020). The irony of the “State-Building” project in Somalia: A transition from a failed state to a fragile state. African Studies Quarterly, 19(2), 1-24.
World Bank. (2021). Gender-based violence (violence against women and girls). https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/socialsustainability/brief/violence-against-women-and-girls
World Health Organization. (2023). Disability and health. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/disability-and-health