4.1 Introduction

The First World War (28th July, 1914 – 11th Nov, 1918) had a profound effect on the European continent as well as the rest of the world. Millions of people died during the war, and many were displaced. The economies of the warring states were destroyed.

Prior to the war, Europe had established its dominance as the political, economic, and military power of the world. The long-term factors that led to the war were rooted in the political and economic changes following the Industrial Revolution.

4.1.1 The Opposing Sides of the War

The war was fought between two major alliance blocks:

  • The Allies (Entente Powers): Britain and her Empire (Australia, India, Canada, New Zealand), France, Russia (Left Dec. 1917), Italy (entered May 1915), Serbia, Belgium, Romania (Aug. 1916), USA (entered April 1917), and Japan.
  • Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey (Nov. 1914), and Bulgaria (entered Oct. 1915).
# Get World Data
world_map <- map_data("world")

# Define Alliances (Approximation using modern country names for visualization)
# Note: Historical borders differed (e.g., Austria-Hungary), this is a projection.
central_powers <- c("Germany", "Austria", "Hungary", "Turkey", "Bulgaria")
allies <- c("UK", "France", "Russia", "Italy", "USA", "Belgium", "Serbia", "Romania", "Greece", "Portugal", "Japan", "Montenegro")

# Classify countries
world_map <- world_map %>%
  mutate(Alliance = case_when(
    region %in% central_powers ~ "Central Powers",
    region %in% allies ~ "Allies (Entente)",
    TRUE ~ "Neutral/Other"
  ))

# Filter for Europe/North Africa view
europe_map <- world_map %>%
  filter(lat > 30 & lat < 70, long > -25 & long < 45)

# Plot
ggplot(europe_map, aes(x = long, y = lat, group = group, fill = Alliance)) +
  geom_polygon(color = "white", size = 0.2) +
  scale_fill_manual(values = c("Allies (Entente)" = "#2E86C1", 
                               "Central Powers" = "#C0392B", 
                               "Neutral/Other" = "#D5D8DC")) +
  theme_void() +
  labs(title = "Geopolitical Alignment: Europe 1914-1918",
       subtitle = "The Division between Allied and Central Powers") +
  theme(legend.position = "bottom", plot.title = element_text(face="bold"))
Figure 1: Map of European Alliances (Simplified on Modern Borders)

Figure 1: Map of European Alliances (Simplified on Modern Borders)

4.2 Causes of the War

The causes of the Great War can be categorized into long-term systemic issues and immediate triggers.

1. Economic Rivalries

European powers fought tariff wars (levying taxes on imports). The most serious rivalry was between Germany and Britain, as Germany’s industrial growth began to overtake Britain by 1914.

2. Colonial Rivalry

Nations competed for colonies for raw materials and prestige. Germany, a “latecomer” to the Scramble for Africa, became aggressive, leading to naval rivalries.

3. The Moroccan Crisis

  • First Crisis (1905-1906): Germany challenged French influence in Morocco. Resolved at the Algeciras Conference.
  • Second Crisis (1911): French troops occupied Fez. Germany sent the gunboat Panther to Agadir. Tension eased when Germany received territory in the French Congo as compensation.

4. Arms Race

Influenced by Alfred Thayer Mahan, Germany sought to challenge Britain’s naval supremacy. This led to a massive buildup of armies and navies.

5. Alliance System

Initiated by Otto Von Bismarck to isolate France. * Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. * Triple Entente (1907): Britain, France, Russia.

6. Nationalism

Nationalism disrupted the balance of power. * Minorities in the Austro-Hungarian Empire (Slavs, Czechs, Poles) wanted freedom. * The Ottoman Empire was disintegrating (“The Sick Man of Europe”).

7. The Balkan Wars (1912-1913)

  • First Balkan War: The Balkan League (Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, Bulgaria) attacked Turkey.
  • Second Balkan War: Bulgaria attacked its former allies over the spoils of war. These conflicts worsened relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary.

8. The Immediate Cause: Assassination in Sarajevo

On 28th June, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand (a secret Serb organization).

Archduke Franz Ferdinand and Sophie in Sarajevo Figure 2: The arrest of Gavrilo Princip after the assassination.

The Domino Effect: 1. Austria sent an ultimatum to Serbia. 2. Serbia rejected the demand for Austrian police to enter Serbia. 3. Austria declared war on Serbia (July 28). 4. Russia mobilized to support Serbia. 5. Germany declared war on Russia and France. 6. Britain declared war on Germany (Aug 4) after the invasion of Belgium.

4.3 Course of the War

The war was fought primarily on two fronts.

4.3.1 Western Front (France and Belgium)

Germany aimed for a quick victory (Schlieffen Plan) through Belgium but was stopped. Both sides dug defensive trenches from Belgium to Switzerland. This resulted in a stalemate with very little territorial progress for four years.

4.3.2 Eastern Front (Russia)

  • Russia mobilized faster than expected but suffered heavy defeats against Germany (Battle of Tannenberg, Battle of Masurian Lakes).
  • Turkey entered the war, blocking Russian supply lines in the Black Sea.
  • Russia was forced out of the war by 1917 due to the Russian Revolution, signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918.

4.3.3 The War at Sea

Britain used its naval power to blockade Germany. Germany retaliated with Unrestricted Submarine Warfare. The sinking of the passenger ship Lusitania (killing 128 Americans) and continued U-boat attacks brought the USA into the war in April 1917.

# Data representing Dreadnought strength at war start
naval_data <- data.frame(
  Country = c("Great Britain", "Germany", "USA", "France", "Japan", "Austria-Hungary"),
  Dreadnoughts = c(29, 17, 10, 4, 4, 3),
  Alliance = c("Allies", "Central", "Neutral (Joined Allies)", "Allies", "Allies", "Central")
)

ggplot(naval_data, aes(x = reorder(Country, Dreadnoughts), y = Dreadnoughts, fill = Alliance)) +
  geom_bar(stat = "identity", width = 0.7) +
  coord_flip() +
  scale_fill_manual(values = c("Allies" = "#2E86C1", "Central" = "#C0392B", "Neutral (Joined Allies)" = "#F1C40F")) +
  theme_minimal() +
  labs(title = "The Naval Arms Race: Dreadnoughts in Commission (1914)",
       y = "Number of Battleships", x = "") +
  theme(legend.position = "bottom")
Figure 3: Comparative Naval Strength (Dreadnoughts) in 1914

Figure 3: Comparative Naval Strength (Dreadnoughts) in 1914

4.4 The Treaty of Versailles

Germany signed an armistice on 11th November 1918. The final peace treaty was signed at Versailles on 28th June 1919.

Key Terms of the Treaty:

  1. War Guilt: Germany had to accept total blame for starting the war.
  2. Reparations: Germany had to pay £6,600 million.
  3. Territories: Germany lost all overseas colonies (became League of Nations mandates).
  4. Military Restrictions:
    • Army limited to 100,000 men.
    • No submarines, aircraft, or armored vehicles.
    • Rhineland demilitarized.
  5. League of Nations: Established to preserve peace.

Other Treaties

  • Treaty of St-Germain (1919): Separated Austria and Hungary.
  • Treaty of Trianon (1920): Hungary lost territory to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.
  • Treaty of Sevres/Lausanne: Dismantled the Ottoman Empire; established modern Turkey.
# Data based on historical estimates (approximate)
casualties <- data.frame(
  Country = c("Germany", "Russia", "France", "Austria-Hungary", "British Empire", "Italy", "Turkey", "USA"),
  Deaths = c(2000000, 1800000, 1400000, 1100000, 900000, 600000, 800000, 116000),
  Side = c("Central", "Allies", "Allies", "Central", "Allies", "Allies", "Central", "Allies")
)

ggplot(casualties, aes(x = reorder(Country, Deaths), y = Deaths, fill = Side)) +
  geom_bar(stat = "identity") +
  coord_flip() +
  scale_y_continuous(labels = comma) +
  scale_fill_manual(values = c("Allies" = "#2E86C1", "Central" = "#C0392B")) +
  theme_light() +
  labs(title = "Military Deaths by Major Power",
       subtitle = "Estimates of soldiers killed during WWI",
       x = "Country", y = "Total Deaths")
Figure 4: The Human Cost of the War

Figure 4: The Human Cost of the War

4.5 Review Exercise

Structured Questions:

  1. Identify the factors that led to the First World War.
    • Answer: Economic rivalries, Colonial rivalries, Alliances, Arms Race, Nationalism, and the Assassination of Franz Ferdinand.
  2. Explain the Alliance system.
    • Answer: A system of treaties (Triple Alliance vs. Triple Entente) where nations promised to support one another if attacked, turning a local conflict into a global war.
  3. To hold the Allies on the Western Front, what strategy did Germans use?
    • Answer: They dug extensive defensive trenches from Belgium to Switzerland.

Reference: Al-Bahrain Schools History Text Book - Form Three ````