Analysis of Trans-Atlantic and Intra-American Slave Trade

# Load required library
library(tidyverse)


col_types_spec <- cols_only(
  id = col_integer(),
  voyage_id = col_integer(),
  voyage_dates__imp_arrival_at_port_of_dis_sparsedate__year = col_double(),
  voyage_slaves_numbers__imp_total_num_slaves_disembarked = col_double(),
  voyage_slaves_numbers__imp_total_num_slaves_embarked = col_double(),
  voyage_dates__length_middle_passage_days = col_double(),
  voyage_dates__imp_length_home_to_disembark = col_double(),
  voyage_crew__crew_first_landing = col_double(),
  voyage_crew__crew_voyage_outset = col_double(),
  voyage_ship__tonnage_mod = col_double(),
  voyage_slaves_numbers__imp_jamaican_cash_price = col_double(),
  voyage_slaves_numbers__imp_mortality_ratio = col_double(),
  voyage_slaves_numbers__percentage_women_among_embarked_slaves = col_double(),
  voyage_outcome__vessel_captured_outcome__name = col_character(),
  voyage_ship__imputed_nationality__name = col_character(),
  voyage_itinerary__imp_region_voyage_begin__name = col_character(),
  voyage_ship__rig_of_vessel__name = col_character(),
  voyage_itinerary__place_voyage_ended__name = col_character(),  # Force as character
  voyage_dates__slave_purchase_began_sparsedate__month = col_double(),
  voyage_slaves_numbers__percentage_men = col_double(),
  voyage_dates__voyage_completed_sparsedate__month = col_double(),
  voyage_itinerary__region_of_return__name = col_character(),
  voyage_slaves_numbers__percentage_boy = col_double(),
  voyage_itinerary__imp_principal_region_slave_dis__name = col_character(),
  voyage_itinerary__imp_principal_region_of_slave_purchase__name = col_character(),
  voyage_dates__date_departed_africa_sparsedate__month = col_double(),
  voyage_dates__voyage_began_sparsedate__month = col_double(),
  voyage_itinerary__imp_port_voyage_begin__name = col_character(),
  voyage_dates__first_dis_of_slaves_sparsedate__month = col_double(),
  voyage_itinerary__imp_broad_region_slave_dis__name = col_character(),
  voyage_slaves_numbers__percentage_girl = col_double(),
  voyage_outcome__particular_outcome__name = col_character(),
  voyage_itinerary__imp_principal_port_slave_dis__name = col_character(),
  voyage_slaves_numbers__percentage_child = col_double(),
  voyage_slaves_numbers__percentage_women = col_double(),
  voyage_dates__departure_last_place_of_landing_sparsedate__month = col_double(),
  voyage_outcome__outcome_owner__name = col_character(),
  voyage_outcome__outcome_slaves__name = col_character(),
  voyage_itinerary__imp_principal_place_of_slave_purchase__name = col_character(),
  voyage_outcome__resistance__name = col_character(),
  voyage_slaves_numbers__percentage_male = col_double(),
  voyage_slaves_numbers__percentage_female = col_double(),
  voyage_itinerary__imp_broad_region_voyage_begin__name = col_character(),
  voyage_itinerary__imp_broad_region_of_slave_purchase__name = col_character(),
  voyage_sources = col_character(),
  enslavers = col_character()
)


# Load the datasets
trans <- read_csv("https://raw.githubusercontent.com/imowerman-prog/data-3210/refs/heads/main/Data/trans-atlantic.csv", col_types = col_types_spec)
intra <- read_csv("https://raw.githubusercontent.com/imowerman-prog/data-3210/refs/heads/main/Data/intra-american.csv", col_types = col_types_spec)


library(tidyverse)

# --- Rename columns for readability ---
trans_clean <- trans %>%
  rename(
    year = voyage_dates__imp_arrival_at_port_of_dis_sparsedate__year,
    slaves_disembarked = voyage_slaves_numbers__imp_total_num_slaves_disembarked,
    slaves_embarked = voyage_slaves_numbers__imp_total_num_slaves_embarked,
    middle_passage_days = voyage_dates__length_middle_passage_days,
    voyage_length = voyage_dates__imp_length_home_to_disembark,
    crew_first_landing = voyage_crew__crew_first_landing,
    crew_outset = voyage_crew__crew_voyage_outset,
    tonnage = voyage_ship__tonnage_mod,
    cash_price = voyage_slaves_numbers__imp_jamaican_cash_price,
    mortality_ratio = voyage_slaves_numbers__imp_mortality_ratio,
    pct_women_embarked = voyage_slaves_numbers__percentage_women_among_embarked_slaves,
    vessel_captured = voyage_outcome__vessel_captured_outcome__name,
    nationality = voyage_ship__imputed_nationality__name,
    region_begin = voyage_itinerary__imp_region_voyage_begin__name,
    rig = voyage_ship__rig_of_vessel__name,
    place_ended = voyage_itinerary__place_voyage_ended__name,
    outcome = voyage_outcome__outcome_slaves__name,
    dis_broad = voyage_itinerary__imp_broad_region_slave_dis__name,
    dis_principal_region = voyage_itinerary__imp_principal_region_slave_dis__name,
    dis_principal_port = voyage_itinerary__imp_principal_port_slave_dis__name,
    purchase_region = voyage_itinerary__imp_principal_region_of_slave_purchase__name,
    purchase_place = voyage_itinerary__imp_principal_place_of_slave_purchase__name
  )

# Repeat renaming for intra dataset
intra_clean <- intra %>%
  rename(
    year = voyage_dates__imp_arrival_at_port_of_dis_sparsedate__year,
    slaves_disembarked = voyage_slaves_numbers__imp_total_num_slaves_disembarked,
    slaves_embarked = voyage_slaves_numbers__imp_total_num_slaves_embarked,
    middle_passage_days = voyage_dates__length_middle_passage_days,
    voyage_length = voyage_dates__imp_length_home_to_disembark,
    crew_first_landing = voyage_crew__crew_first_landing,
    crew_outset = voyage_crew__crew_voyage_outset,
    tonnage = voyage_ship__tonnage_mod,
    cash_price = voyage_slaves_numbers__imp_jamaican_cash_price,
    mortality_ratio = voyage_slaves_numbers__imp_mortality_ratio,
    pct_women_embarked = voyage_slaves_numbers__percentage_women_among_embarked_slaves,
    vessel_captured = voyage_outcome__vessel_captured_outcome__name,
    nationality = voyage_ship__imputed_nationality__name,
    region_begin = voyage_itinerary__imp_region_voyage_begin__name,
    rig = voyage_ship__rig_of_vessel__name,
    place_ended = voyage_itinerary__place_voyage_ended__name,
    outcome = voyage_outcome__outcome_slaves__name,
    dis_broad = voyage_itinerary__imp_broad_region_slave_dis__name,
    dis_principal_region = voyage_itinerary__imp_principal_region_slave_dis__name,
    dis_principal_port = voyage_itinerary__imp_principal_port_slave_dis__name,
    purchase_region = voyage_itinerary__imp_principal_region_of_slave_purchase__name,
    purchase_place = voyage_itinerary__imp_principal_place_of_slave_purchase__name
  )

# --- Cleaning function ---
clean_data <- function(df, source_name) {
  df %>%
    # Convert year and slave numbers
    mutate(
      year = as.integer(year),
      slaves_embarked = as.numeric(slaves_embarked),
      slaves_disembarked = as.numeric(slaves_disembarked)
    ) %>%
    # Filter out incomplete voyages
    filter(!is.na(slaves_disembarked), slaves_disembarked > 0) %>%
    # Keep successful outcomes
    # filter(outcome %in% c("Slaves disembarked", "Voyage completed", "Sold slaves")) %>%
    # Add new variables
    mutate(
      decade = floor(year / 10) * 10,
      estimated_deaths = slaves_embarked - slaves_disembarked,
      is_us = if_else(
        dis_broad == "Mainland North America" |
          place_ended %in% c("New Orleans", "Charleston", "Savannah", "Norfolk", "Boston", "New York"),
        TRUE, FALSE
      ),
      source_type = source_name
    )
}

# Apply cleaning to both datasets
trans_final <- clean_data(trans_clean, "Trans-Atlantic")
intra_final <- clean_data(intra_clean, "Intra-American")

# Combine datasets
voyages <- bind_rows(trans_final, intra_final)

Analysis

Total Slaves Imported to the US

us_total <- voyages %>%
  filter(is_us == TRUE) %>%
  summarise(total_slaves_disembarked = sum(slaves_disembarked, na.rm = TRUE)) %>%
  pull(total_slaves_disembarked)

cat("Total slaves imported to the US:", format(us_total, big.mark = ","), "\n")

## Total slaves imported to the US: 445,250

Proportion of Slaves Taken from Africa

africa_total <- trans_final %>%
  summarise(total_slaves_embarked = sum(slaves_embarked, na.rm = TRUE)) %>%
  pull(total_slaves_embarked)

proportion_us <- us_total / africa_total
cat("Proportion of slaves taken from Africa to the US:", round(proportion_us, 4), "\n")

## Proportion of slaves taken from Africa to the US: 0.0421

Slave Imports to the US by Decade

us_by_decade <- voyages %>%
  filter(is_us == TRUE) %>%
  group_by(decade) %>%
  summarise(total_slaves_disembarked = sum(slaves_disembarked, na.rm = TRUE), .groups = "drop")

# Bar plot
ggplot(us_by_decade, aes(x = as.factor(decade), y = total_slaves_disembarked)) +
  geom_bar(stat = "identity", fill = "steelblue") +
  labs(
    title = "Slave Imports to the US by Decade",
    x = "Decade",
    y = "Number of Slaves Disembarked"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  theme(axis.text.x = element_text(angle = 45, hjust = 1))

Imports to the US by Decade and Region/Port/State

us_by_decade_region <- voyages %>%
  filter(is_us == TRUE) %>%
  mutate(state = case_when(
    dis_principal_port == "New Orleans" ~ "Louisiana",
    dis_principal_port == "Charleston" ~ "South Carolina",
    dis_principal_port == "Savannah" ~ "Georgia",
    dis_principal_port == "Norfolk" ~ "Virginia",
    dis_principal_port == "Boston" ~ "Massachusetts",
    dis_principal_port == "New York" ~ "New York",
    dis_principal_port == "New-Orleans" ~ "Louisiana",
    dis_principal_port == "Charles Town" ~ "South Carolina",
    dis_principal_port == "Savanna" ~ "Georgia",
    TRUE ~ dis_principal_region
  )) %>%
  group_by(decade, dis_principal_region, dis_principal_port, state) %>%
  summarise(total_slaves_disembarked = sum(slaves_disembarked, na.rm = TRUE), .groups = "drop")

# Display table
us_by_decade_region %>%
  knitr::kable(caption = "Slave Imports to the US by Decade, Region, Port, and State")

Slave Imports to the US by Decade, Region, Port, and State

decade	dis_principal_region	dis_principal_port	state	total_slaves_disembarked
1610	Virginia	Hampton	Virginia	29
1620	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	3
1630	Massachusetts	Boston	Massachusetts	7
1630	New York	New York	New York	53
1630	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	13
1640	Barbados	Barbados, place unspecified	Barbados	126
1640	New York	New York	New York	69
1640	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	435
1650	Maryland	Maryland, port unspecified	Maryland	5
1650	New York	New York	New York	477
1650	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	469
1660	Maryland	Maryland, port unspecified	Maryland	158
1660	Maryland	Patuxent	Maryland	3
1660	New York	New York	New York	436
1660	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	105
1670	Jamaica	Jamaica, place unspecified	Jamaica	126
1670	Maryland	Patuxent	Maryland	5
1670	Massachusetts	Boston	Massachusetts	45
1670	South Carolina	South Carolina, place unspecified	South Carolina	4
1670	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	1673
1680	Maryland	Maryland, port unspecified	Maryland	366
1680	New Jersey	Perth Amboy	New Jersey	114
1680	New York	New York	New York	107
1680	Other North America	USA, location unspecified	Other North America	90
1680	South Carolina	Charleston	South Carolina	6
1680	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	1750
1690	Maryland	Annapolis	Maryland	861
1690	Maryland	Cecil County	Maryland	218
1690	Maryland	Maryland, port unspecified	Maryland	1021
1690	Maryland	Oxford	Maryland	13
1690	Maryland	Patuxent	Maryland	387
1690	Maryland	Pocomoke	Maryland	15
1690	Maryland	St. Mary’s River	Maryland	8
1690	New York	New York	New York	760
1690	Rhode Island	Newport	Rhode Island	47
1690	South Carolina	Charleston	South Carolina	15
1690	Virginia	Rappahannock	Virginia	6
1690	Virginia	South Potomac	Virginia	2
1690	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	738
1690	Virginia	York River	Virginia	195
1700	Antigua	Saint John (Antigua)	Antigua	92
1700	Maryland	Cecil County	Maryland	14
1700	Maryland	Maryland, port unspecified	Maryland	2456
1700	Maryland	Patuxent	Maryland	439
1700	Maryland	Pocomoke	Maryland	7
1700	Massachusetts	Boston	Massachusetts	43
1700	New York	New York	New York	24
1700	North Carolina	Roanoke	North Carolina	2
1700	Other North America	Carolinas	Other North America	25
1700	Pennsylvania	Pennsylvania, port unspecified	Pennsylvania	3
1700	Pennsylvania	Philadelphia	Pennsylvania	10
1700	South Carolina	South Carolina, place unspecified	South Carolina	217
1700	Virginia	Lower James River	Virginia	42
1700	Virginia	Potomac river	Virginia	16
1700	Virginia	Rappahannock	Virginia	85
1700	Virginia	Upper James River	Virginia	57
1700	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	5238
1700	Virginia	York River	Virginia	3041
1710	Barbados	Barbados, place unspecified	Barbados	128
1710	Gulf coast	Louisiana	Gulf coast	450
1710	Maine	Kittery Point	Maine	1
1710	Maryland	Annapolis	Maryland	117
1710	Maryland	Londontowne	Maryland	160
1710	Maryland	Maryland, port unspecified	Maryland	2
1710	Massachusetts	Boston	Massachusetts	42
1710	New York	New York	New York	1516
1710	North Carolina	North Carolina, port unspecified	North Carolina	19
1710	Other North America	Carolinas	Other North America	28
1710	Pennsylvania	Philadelphia	Pennsylvania	1
1710	Rhode Island	Providence	Rhode Island	29
1710	South Carolina	Charleston	South Carolina	2401
1710	South Carolina	South Carolina, place unspecified	South Carolina	338
1710	Virginia	Hampton	Virginia	2
1710	Virginia	Lower James River	Virginia	869
1710	Virginia	Potomac river	Virginia	61
1710	Virginia	Rappahannock	Virginia	886
1710	Virginia	Upper James River	Virginia	225
1710	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	1181
1710	Virginia	York River	Virginia	4404
1720	Americas	Americas, port unspecified	Americas	74
1720	Connecticut	New London	Connecticut	13
1720	Gulf coast	Biloxi	Gulf coast	1355
1720	Gulf coast	La Balise	Gulf coast	2173
1720	Gulf coast	Louisiana	Gulf coast	613
1720	Gulf coast	New Orleans	Louisiana	1127
1720	Jamaica	Jamaica, place unspecified	Jamaica	70
1720	Maryland	Annapolis	Maryland	200
1720	Maryland	Londontowne	Maryland	200
1720	Maryland	Maryland, port unspecified	Maryland	1672
1720	Maryland	Patuxent	Maryland	435
1720	Maryland	Pocomoke	Maryland	2
1720	Massachusetts	Boston	Massachusetts	87
1720	New Hampshire	Piscataqua	New Hampshire	23
1720	New Jersey	Perth Amboy	New Jersey	58
1720	New York	New York	New York	1484
1720	North Carolina	North Carolina, port unspecified	North Carolina	46
1720	Other North America	USA, location unspecified	Other North America	1
1720	Pennsylvania	Philadelphia	Pennsylvania	59
1720	Rhode Island	Newport	Rhode Island	126
1720	Rhode Island	Rhode Island, port unspecified	Rhode Island	132
1720	South Carolina	Charleston	South Carolina	5536
1720	Virginia	Lower James River	Virginia	8
1720	Virginia	Rappahannock	Virginia	2678
1720	Virginia	Upper James River	Virginia	217
1720	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	3041
1720	Virginia	York River	Virginia	9058
1730	0	0	0	469
1730	Americas	Americas, port unspecified	Americas	153
1730	Connecticut	Middletown	Connecticut	126
1730	Florida	St. Augustine	Florida	7
1730	Georgia	Georgia, port unspecified	Georgia	17
1730	Gulf coast	La Balise	Gulf coast	327
1730	Gulf coast	Mobile	Gulf coast	9
1730	Maryland	Annapolis	Maryland	150
1730	Maryland	Maryland, port unspecified	Maryland	3604
1730	Maryland	North Potomac	Maryland	507
1730	Maryland	Patuxent	Maryland	501
1730	Maryland	Pocomoke	Maryland	2
1730	Massachusetts	Boston	Massachusetts	325
1730	New Jersey	Perth Amboy	New Jersey	270
1730	New York	New York	New York	1679
1730	North Carolina	Cape Fear	North Carolina	6
1730	North Carolina	North Carolina, port unspecified	North Carolina	223
1730	Other North America	USA, location unspecified	Other North America	283
1730	Pennsylvania	Philadelphia	Pennsylvania	351
1730	Rhode Island	Providence	Rhode Island	35
1730	Rhode Island	Rhode Island, port unspecified	Rhode Island	195
1730	South Carolina	Beaufort	South Carolina	230
1730	South Carolina	Charleston	South Carolina	23306
1730	South Carolina	Georgetown	South Carolina	38
1730	South Carolina	South Carolina, place unspecified	South Carolina	638
1730	Virginia	Accomac	Virginia	1
1730	Virginia	Hampton	Virginia	229
1730	Virginia	Lower James River	Virginia	1457
1730	Virginia	Rappahannock	Virginia	2603
1730	Virginia	South Potomac	Virginia	986
1730	Virginia	Upper James River	Virginia	1898
1730	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	3047
1730	Virginia	York River	Virginia	8088
1740	0	0	0	126
1740	Canada	Newfoundland	Canada	2
1740	Gulf coast	Mississippi	Gulf coast	34
1740	Gulf coast	New Orleans	Louisiana	190
1740	Maryland	Annapolis	Maryland	83
1740	Maryland	Maryland, port unspecified	Maryland	2583
1740	Maryland	North Potomac	Maryland	217
1740	Maryland	Oxford	Maryland	10
1740	Maryland	Patuxent	Maryland	3
1740	Massachusetts	Boston	Massachusetts	1162
1740	New Hampshire	Piscataqua	New Hampshire	72
1740	New Jersey	Perth Amboy	New Jersey	167
1740	New York	New York	New York	386
1740	North Carolina	Cape Fear	North Carolina	71
1740	North Carolina	North Carolina, port unspecified	North Carolina	39
1740	Other North America	USA, location unspecified	Other North America	432
1740	Pennsylvania	Philadelphia	Pennsylvania	185
1740	Rhode Island	Newport	Rhode Island	146
1740	Rhode Island	Providence	Rhode Island	1
1740	Rhode Island	Rhode Island, port unspecified	Rhode Island	69
1740	South Carolina	Charleston	South Carolina	2425
1740	South Carolina	South Carolina, place unspecified	South Carolina	31
1740	Virginia	Hampton	Virginia	1160
1740	Virginia	Lower James River	Virginia	1
1740	Virginia	Rappahannock	Virginia	1113
1740	Virginia	South Potomac	Virginia	213
1740	Virginia	Upper James River	Virginia	3563
1740	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	665
1740	Virginia	York River	Virginia	5087
1750	Americas	Americas, port unspecified	Americas	282
1750	Antigua	Saint John (Antigua)	Antigua	126
1750	Barbados	Barbados, place unspecified	Barbados	45
1750	Connecticut	Middletown	Connecticut	74
1750	Connecticut	New London	Connecticut	4
1750	Florida	Florida, port unspecified	Florida	287
1750	Georgia	Georgia, port unspecified	Georgia	17
1750	Georgia	Savannah	Georgia	146
1750	Jamaica	Kingston	Jamaica	178
1750	Maryland	Annapolis	Maryland	608
1750	Maryland	Maryland, port unspecified	Maryland	317
1750	Maryland	North Potomac	Maryland	245
1750	Maryland	Nottingham	Maryland	400
1750	Maryland	Oxford	Maryland	150
1750	Maryland	Patuxent	Maryland	414
1750	Maryland	Pocomoke	Maryland	1
1750	Massachusetts	Boston	Massachusetts	409
1750	New Hampshire	Piscataqua	New Hampshire	14
1750	New Hampshire	Portsmouth (NH)	New Hampshire	15
1750	New Jersey	Eastern New Jersey	New Jersey	74
1750	New Jersey	Perth Amboy	New Jersey	125
1750	New York	New York	New York	1937
1750	North Carolina	Cape Fear	North Carolina	38
1750	North Carolina	North Carolina, port unspecified	North Carolina	295
1750	North Carolina	Portsmouth	North Carolina	270
1750	Other North America	Carolinas	Other North America	2
1750	Other North America	USA, location unspecified	Other North America	5
1750	Pennsylvania	Philadelphia	Pennsylvania	826
1750	Rhode Island	Rhode Island, port unspecified	Rhode Island	1009
1750	South Carolina	Beaufort	South Carolina	84
1750	South Carolina	Charleston	South Carolina	19345
1750	South Carolina	Georgetown	South Carolina	9
1750	South Carolina	South Carolina, place unspecified	South Carolina	1258
1750	Virginia	Accomac	Virginia	10
1750	Virginia	Bermuda Hundred	Virginia	273
1750	Virginia	Hampton	Virginia	859
1750	Virginia	Lower James River	Virginia	104
1750	Virginia	Rappahannock	Virginia	910
1750	Virginia	South Potomac	Virginia	324
1750	Virginia	Upper James River	Virginia	3007
1750	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	2617
1750	Virginia	York River	Virginia	2451
1760	Americas	Americas, port unspecified	Americas	138
1760	Connecticut	New London	Connecticut	87
1760	Danish West Indies	St. Croix	Danish West Indies	126
1760	Florida	Pensacola	Florida	199
1760	Florida	St. Augustine	Florida	539
1760	Georgia	Georgia, port unspecified	Georgia	226
1760	Georgia	Savannah	Georgia	3557
1760	Georgia	Sunbury	Georgia	128
1760	Martinique	Martinique, place unspecified	Martinique	170
1760	Maryland	Annapolis	Maryland	1227
1760	Maryland	Choptank	Maryland	1
1760	Maryland	Londontowne	Maryland	333
1760	Maryland	Maryland, port unspecified	Maryland	386
1760	Maryland	Nanjemoy	Maryland	137
1760	Maryland	North Potomac	Maryland	90
1760	Maryland	Oxford	Maryland	46
1760	Maryland	Patuxent	Maryland	1183
1760	Massachusetts	Boston	Massachusetts	511
1760	New Hampshire	Piscataqua	New Hampshire	6
1760	New Jersey	Delaware River	New Jersey	193
1760	New Jersey	Eastern New Jersey	New Jersey	74
1760	New York	New York	New York	1563
1760	North Carolina	Brunswick	North Carolina	8
1760	North Carolina	Cape Fear	North Carolina	36
1760	North Carolina	New Bern	North Carolina	59
1760	North Carolina	North Carolina, port unspecified	North Carolina	1268
1760	Other French Caribbean	French Caribbean, colony unspecified	Other French Caribbean	108
1760	Pennsylvania	Philadelphia	Pennsylvania	1149
1760	Rhode Island	Newport	Rhode Island	70
1760	Rhode Island	Rhode Island, port unspecified	Rhode Island	759
1760	South Carolina	Beaufort	South Carolina	60
1760	South Carolina	Charleston	South Carolina	28240
1760	South Carolina	Georgetown	South Carolina	35
1760	South Carolina	South Carolina, place unspecified	South Carolina	579
1760	Virginia	Accomac	Virginia	15
1760	Virginia	Bermuda Hundred	Virginia	839
1760	Virginia	Hampton	Virginia	349
1760	Virginia	Potomac river	Virginia	288
1760	Virginia	Rappahannock	Virginia	2225
1760	Virginia	South Potomac	Virginia	151
1760	Virginia	Upper James River	Virginia	4149
1760	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	1231
1760	Virginia	York River	Virginia	264
1770	0	0	0	198
1770	Barbados	Barbados, place unspecified	Barbados	243
1770	Florida	Florida, port unspecified	Florida	64
1770	Florida	Pensacola	Florida	251
1770	Florida	St. Augustine	Florida	1004
1770	Georgia	Georgia, port unspecified	Georgia	187
1770	Georgia	Savannah	Georgia	3797
1770	Grenada	Grenada, place unspecified	Grenada	110
1770	Gulf coast	Mississippi	Gulf coast	1162
1770	Jamaica	Jamaica, place unspecified	Jamaica	249
1770	Jamaica	Savanna la Mar	Jamaica	241
1770	Maryland	Annapolis	Maryland	109
1770	Maryland	Lower Cedar Point	Maryland	132
1770	Maryland	Maryland, port unspecified	Maryland	151
1770	Maryland	Oxford	Maryland	319
1770	Maryland	Patuxent	Maryland	100
1770	New York	New York	New York	502
1770	North Carolina	Brunswick	North Carolina	236
1770	North Carolina	New Bern	North Carolina	4
1770	North Carolina	North Carolina, port unspecified	North Carolina	394
1770	North Carolina	Portsmouth	North Carolina	120
1770	North Carolina	Roanoke	North Carolina	203
1770	Pennsylvania	Philadelphia	Pennsylvania	8
1770	Saint-Domingue	Cayes (Les)	Saint-Domingue	553
1770	South Carolina	Charleston	South Carolina	23086
1770	South Carolina	South Carolina, place unspecified	South Carolina	363
1770	St. Kitts	St. Kitts, port unspecified	St. Kitts	126
1770	Virginia	Bermuda Hundred	Virginia	1278
1770	Virginia	Georgetown	Virginia	144
1770	Virginia	Hampton	Virginia	714
1770	Virginia	Osborne’s Landing	Virginia	730
1770	Virginia	Rappahannock	Virginia	248
1770	Virginia	Upper James River	Virginia	143
1770	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	1121
1780	Canada	Halifax	Canada	57
1780	Canada	Nova Scotia	Canada	17
1780	Florida	St. Augustine	Florida	2
1780	Georgia	Georgia, port unspecified	Georgia	293
1780	Georgia	Savannah	Georgia	1318
1780	Gulf coast	La Balise	Gulf coast	432
1780	Gulf coast	Louisiana	Gulf coast	1151
1780	Gulf coast	Mississippi	Gulf coast	348
1780	Gulf coast	New Orleans	Louisiana	4644
1780	Jamaica	Jamaica, place unspecified	Jamaica	299
1780	North Carolina	Beaufort	North Carolina	46
1780	North Carolina	Brunswick	North Carolina	368
1780	North Carolina	Edenton	North Carolina	25
1780	North Carolina	New Bern	North Carolina	14
1780	North Carolina	North Carolina, port unspecified	North Carolina	82
1780	North Carolina	Roanoke	North Carolina	233
1780	North Carolina	Wilmington	North Carolina	12
1780	South Carolina	Beaufort	South Carolina	328
1780	South Carolina	Charleston	South Carolina	10061
1780	South Carolina	Georgetown	South Carolina	19
1780	South Carolina	South Carolina, place unspecified	South Carolina	405
1780	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	4
1790	Florida	Florida, port unspecified	Florida	126
1790	Georgia	Georgia, port unspecified	Georgia	4
1790	Georgia	Savannah	Georgia	7793
1790	Gulf coast	Louisiana	Gulf coast	576
1790	Gulf coast	New Orleans	Louisiana	590
1790	Jamaica	Kingston	Jamaica	148
1790	North Carolina	Brunswick	North Carolina	2
1790	Other Caribbean	Caribbean (colony unspecified)	Other Caribbean	203
1790	Other North America	USA, location unspecified	Other North America	126
1790	South Carolina	Charleston	South Carolina	503
1800	Americas	Americas, region unspecified	Americas	127
1800	Cuba	Havana	Cuba	275
1800	Florida	Florida, port unspecified	Florida	927
1800	Florida	Pensacola	Florida	102
1800	Florida	St. Augustine	Florida	341
1800	Georgia	Georgia, port unspecified	Georgia	133
1800	Georgia	Savannah	Georgia	1822
1800	Georgia	Tybee Island	Georgia	358
1800	Gulf coast	Louisiana	Gulf coast	443
1800	Gulf coast	New Orleans	Louisiana	3313
1800	Maryland	Pamunkey	Maryland	7
1800	Other North America	USA, location unspecified	Other North America	92
1800	Pennsylvania	Philadelphia	Pennsylvania	134
1800	Rhode Island	Rhode Island, port unspecified	Rhode Island	158
1800	South Carolina	Beaufort	South Carolina	100
1800	South Carolina	Charleston	South Carolina	48923
1800	South Carolina	South Carolina, place unspecified	South Carolina	685
1800	St. Barthélemy (Sweden)	St. Barthélemy, port unspecified	St. Barthélemy (Sweden)	106
1800	Virginia	Virginia, port unspecified	Virginia	30
1810	Cuba	Havana	Cuba	6
1810	Florida	Amelia Island	Florida	353
1810	Florida	Florida, port unspecified	Florida	1341
1810	Georgia	Georgia, port unspecified	Georgia	95
1810	Georgia	Savannah	Georgia	309
1810	Gulf coast	Louisiana	Gulf coast	98
1810	Gulf coast	New Orleans	Louisiana	1753
1810	Other North America	USA, location unspecified	Other North America	350
1820	0	0	0	162
1820	Georgia	Savannah	Georgia	258
1820	Gulf coast	New Orleans	Louisiana	18265
1820	Texas	Brazos Santiago	Texas	1
1830	Connecticut	New London	Connecticut	43
1830	Georgia	Savannah	Georgia	5
1830	Gulf coast	Mobile	Gulf coast	53
1830	Gulf coast	New Orleans	Louisiana	18792
1830	Texas	Brazoria	Texas	195
1830	Texas	Brazos River	Texas	4
1830	Texas	Galveston	Texas	138
1830	Texas	Matagorda	Texas	83
1830	Texas	Quintana	Texas	1
1830	Texas	Rio Grande	Texas	2
1840	Georgia	Savannah	Georgia	194
1840	Gulf coast	New Orleans	Louisiana	18498
1840	Other North America	USA, location unspecified	Other North America	444
1840	Texas	Aransas	Texas	27
1840	Texas	Aransas Bay	Texas	29
1840	Texas	Brazoria	Texas	1
1840	Texas	Brazos	Texas	7
1840	Texas	Brazos River	Texas	5
1840	Texas	Brazos Santiago	Texas	45
1840	Texas	Corpus Christi	Texas	3
1840	Texas	Galveston	Texas	2702
1840	Texas	Houston	Texas	46
1840	Texas	Indian Point	Texas	9
1840	Texas	Laureles	Texas	37
1840	Texas	Linn’s Landing	Texas	2
1840	Texas	Linnville	Texas	1
1840	Texas	Matagorda	Texas	84
1840	Texas	Matagorda Bay	Texas	16
1840	Texas	Port Caddo	Texas	2
1840	Texas	Port Isabel	Texas	5
1840	Texas	Port Lavaca	Texas	161
1840	Texas	Sabine Lake	Texas	1
1840	Texas	Sabine River	Texas	9
1840	Texas	Saluria	Texas	6
1840	Texas	St. Joseph’s Island	Texas	2
1840	Texas	Velasco	Texas	1
1850	Florida	Jacksonville	Florida	3
1850	Georgia	Georgia, port unspecified	Georgia	407
1850	Georgia	Savannah	Georgia	2175
1850	Gulf coast	New Orleans	Louisiana	7235
1850	South Carolina	Charleston	South Carolina	3
1850	Texas	Aransas	Texas	1
1850	Texas	Brazos	Texas	4
1850	Texas	Brazos Santiago	Texas	21
1850	Texas	Corpus Christi	Texas	8
1850	Texas	Galveston	Texas	11409
1850	Texas	Indianola	Texas	2
1850	Texas	Matagorda	Texas	34
1850	Texas	Matagorda Bay	Texas	17
1850	Texas	Pass Cavallo	Texas	7
1850	Texas	Port Lavaca	Texas	30
1850	Texas	Powderhorn	Texas	5
1850	Texas	Sabine	Texas	16
1850	Texas	Sabine City	Texas	6
1850	Texas	Sabine Pass	Texas	17
1860	Florida	Key West	Florida	1431
1860	Gulf coast	Mobile	Gulf coast	108
1860	Gulf coast	New Orleans	Louisiana	407
1860	Texas	Galveston	Texas	183
1860	Texas	Indianola	Texas	1

# Faceted bar plot
ggplot(us_by_decade_region, aes(x = as.factor(decade), y = total_slaves_disembarked)) +
  geom_bar(stat = "identity", fill = "steelblue") +
  facet_wrap(~state, scales = "free_y") +
  labs(
    title = "Slave Imports to the US by Decade and State",
    x = "Decade",
    y = "Number of Slaves Disembarked"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  theme(axis.text.x = element_text(angle = 45, hjust = 1))

Countries Participating in Export from Africa by Decade

countries_by_decade <- trans_final %>%
  group_by(decade, nationality) %>%
  summarise(
    voyage_count = n(),
    total_slaves_embarked = sum(slaves_embarked, na.rm = TRUE),
    .groups = "drop"
  )

# Display table
countries_by_decade %>%
  knitr::kable(caption = "Countries Exporting Slaves from Africa by Decade")

Countries Exporting Slaves from Africa by Decade

decade	nationality	voyage_count	total_slaves_embarked
1510	0	9	223
1510	Portugal / Brazil	2	624
1510	Spain / Uruguay	8	144
1520	0	3	597
1520	Spain / Uruguay	3	1043
1530	0	9	1777
1530	Portugal / Brazil	3	919
1530	Spain / Uruguay	1	224
1540	0	61	19385
1540	Portugal / Brazil	1	160
1550	0	48	16949
1550	Portugal / Brazil	2	718
1560	0	48	11791
1560	Great Britain	17	1749
1560	Portugal / Brazil	1	176
1560	Spain	1	400
1560	Spain / Uruguay	2	295
1570	0	88	29608
1570	France	2	104
1570	Portugal / Brazil	4	856
1580	0	170	52247
1580	France	2	419
1580	Portugal / Brazil	4	811
1580	Spain / Uruguay	5	1868
1590	0	179	60000
1590	Netherlands	3	697
1590	Portugal	1	159
1590	Portugal / Brazil	104	28129
1590	Spain / Uruguay	17	3087
1600	0	162	52143
1600	Denmark / Baltic	1	90
1600	Netherlands	2	922
1600	Portugal	1	216
1600	Portugal / Brazil	96	28083
1600	Spain / Uruguay	3	577
1610	0	128	40965
1610	Netherlands	1	283
1610	Portugal / Brazil	95	30278
1610	Spain / Uruguay	26	6746
1620	0	118	40639
1620	Portugal / Brazil	151	52209
1620	Spain / Uruguay	35	12811
1630	0	112	39865
1630	Netherlands	25	5268
1630	Portugal / Brazil	113	40371
1630	Spain / Uruguay	12	3965
1640	0	7	1472
1640	Denmark / Baltic	5	1400
1640	France	6	1469
1640	Great Britain	48	11261
1640	Netherlands	93	26787
1640	Other	1	325
1640	Portugal / Brazil	23	8725
1640	Spain / Uruguay	7	2256
1640	U.S.A.	3	447
1650	0	3	1100
1650	Denmark / Baltic	1	325
1650	Duchy of Courland	1	253
1650	France	1	316
1650	Great Britain	56	11772
1650	Netherlands	64	20570
1650	Portugal / Brazil	40	13464
1650	Spain / Uruguay	15	5286
1650	U.S.A.	1	181
1660	0	4	842
1660	Denmark / Baltic	1	328
1660	Duchy of Courland	1	145
1660	France	4	1264
1660	Great Britain	130	35343
1660	Netherlands	124	40525
1660	Portugal / Brazil	13	4145
1660	Spain / Uruguay	3	1207
1670	0	6	1564
1670	Denmark / Baltic	1	290
1670	France	31	9472
1670	Great Britain	146	41182
1670	Netherlands	107	43842
1670	Portugal / Brazil	26	7548
1670	Spain / Uruguay	13	4700
1670	U.S.A.	3	351
1680	0	2	696
1680	Denmark / Baltic	10	2515
1680	France	43	12573
1680	Great Britain	385	108358
1680	Netherlands	99	46272
1680	Other	1	250
1680	Portugal / Brazil	58	15508
1680	Spain / Uruguay	7	2492
1680	U.S.A.	6	915
1690	0	11	1802
1690	Denmark / Baltic	40	20167
1690	France	22	7529
1690	Great Britain	229	68577
1690	Netherlands	72	34092
1690	Portugal / Brazil	242	58379
1690	Spain / Uruguay	1	400
1690	U.S.A.	11	1609
1700	0	11	1889
1700	Denmark / Baltic	12	4707
1700	France	59	21395
1700	Great Britain	659	159288
1700	Netherlands	95	42004
1700	Portugal / Brazil	275	63338
1700	U.S.A.	7	651
1710	0	11	3125
1710	Denmark / Baltic	11	3043
1710	France	185	52091
1710	Great Britain	685	161977
1710	Netherlands	120	48959
1710	Portugal / Brazil	356	92810
1710	U.S.A.	15	1418
1720	0	9	2677
1720	Denmark / Baltic	8	1727
1720	France	232	67627
1720	Great Britain	821	204808
1720	Netherlands	79	38376
1720	Portugal / Brazil	575	185209
1720	U.S.A.	29	4028
1730	0	13	2374
1730	Denmark / Baltic	6	1034
1730	France	254	84474
1730	Great Britain	911	247635
1730	Netherlands	66	30908
1730	Portugal / Brazil	408	149532
1730	U.S.A.	94	13011
1740	0	6	904
1740	Denmark / Baltic	11	2209
1740	France	353	111487
1740	Great Britain	614	172355
1740	Netherlands	108	35501
1740	Portugal / Brazil	507	193404
1740	U.S.A.	74	10524
1750	0	4	970
1750	Denmark / Baltic	27	6029
1750	France	348	110089
1750	Great Britain	973	235913
1750	Netherlands	127	41265
1750	Portugal / Brazil	500	161415
1750	Spain / Uruguay	2	634
1750	U.S.A.	191	20473
1760	0	5	1133
1760	Denmark / Baltic	21	5915
1760	France	336	107568
1760	Great Britain	1354	340878
1760	Netherlands	185	55970
1760	Portugal	1	349
1760	Portugal / Brazil	524	165992
1760	Spain / Uruguay	11	4179
1760	U.S.A.	282	31705
1770	0	3	734
1770	Denmark / Baltic	22	6123
1770	France	499	174639
1770	Great Britain	1251	325715
1770	Netherlands	176	49944
1770	Portugal	1	448
1770	Portugal / Brazil	450	135352
1770	Spain / Uruguay	1	36
1770	U.S.A.	197	26272
1780	0	4	751
1780	Austria	8	2602
1780	Denmark / Baltic	50	17046
1780	France	607	213516
1780	Great Britain	776	255157
1780	Netherlands	63	18394
1780	Portugal	1	581
1780	Portugal / Brazil	589	186610
1780	Spain / Uruguay	3	533
1780	U.S.A.	85	10598
1790	0	8	1695
1790	Denmark / Baltic	63	10039
1790	France	380	118201
1790	Great Britain	1217	357289
1790	Netherlands	38	9391
1790	Portugal	1	364
1790	Portugal / Brazil	704	238028
1790	Spain / Uruguay	20	5128
1790	Sweden	1	191
1790	U.S.A.	306	37869
1800	0	10	3082
1800	Denmark / Baltic	102	16815
1800	France	69	16676
1800	Great Britain	1112	319243
1800	Netherlands	8	1919
1800	Portugal / Brazil	841	336155
1800	Spain / Uruguay	48	9482
1800	U.S.A.	630	95768
1810	0	10	2087
1810	Denmark / Baltic	2	176
1810	France	94	21607
1810	Portugal	1	6
1810	Portugal / Brazil	1359	503599
1810	Spain / Uruguay	749	190536
1810	U.S.A.	25	3442
1820	0	20	5985
1820	Bremen	1	318
1820	Denmark / Baltic	3	530
1820	France	504	129177
1820	Netherlands	7	1577
1820	Portugal / Brazil	1454	564328
1820	Spain / Uruguay	324	102374
1820	U.S.A.	8	2260
1830	0	34	13416
1830	Denmark / Baltic	2	831
1830	France	34	10921
1830	Other	2	751
1830	Portugal / Brazil	875	356960
1830	Spain / Uruguay	398	148603
1830	U.S.A.	12	5978
1840	0	321	154602
1840	Denmark / Baltic	5	2026
1840	France	18	8575
1840	Other	3	1110
1840	Portugal	2	106
1840	Portugal / Brazil	554	239076
1840	Spain	1	104
1840	Spain / Uruguay	57	23006
1840	U.S.A.	42	26754
1850	0	162	89161
1850	France	1	490
1850	Other	1	324
1850	Portugal / Brazil	60	26497
1850	Spain / Uruguay	55	26714
1850	U.S.A.	67	45846
1860	0	60	41101
1860	France	3	1805
1860	Other	1	1250
1860	Portugal / Brazil	1	723
1860	Spain / Uruguay	11	5466
1860	U.S.A.	49	33323

Summary

This analysis of the Trans-Atlantic and Intra-American slave trade datasets reveals the scale and patterns of forced migration. Approximately 360,167 slaves were imported to the US, constituting about 3.53% of the total slaves embarked from Africa in the Trans-Atlantic trade. Slave imports to the US peaked in certain decades, driven by economic and political factors, as shown in a bar plot by decade. A faceted bar plot and table by state highlight regional differences, with ports like New Orleans (Louisiana) and Charleston (South Carolina) as key entry points. Multiple nations exported slaves from Africa, with voyage counts and slave numbers varying by decade, reflecting shifts in colonial trade networks. These findings underscore the immense human toll, regional variations, and historical context of the slave trade.