1. Agrivoltaics
Agyekum (2024). A comprehensive review of two decades of research on
agrivoltaics, a promising new method for electricity and food
production.
2. Environmental impacts of solar
NEED TO READ:
Sawyer et al. (2022) Trade-offs between utility-scale solar
development and ungulates on western rangelands
Jenkins et al. (2015). Birds and Solar Energy: Best Practice
Guidelines.
Agha et al. (2020). Wind, sun, and wildlife: do wind and solar
energy development ‘short-circuit’ conservation in the western United
States?
- Environmental Research Letters, 15(7)
- Review paper
- Goal: review nexus between wildlife conservation and energy
development in the western US
- Conclusions:
- ecological effects of utility-scale RE development on wildlife are
still fraught with uncertainty
Allison et al. (2014). Thinking globally and siting locally–
renewable energy and biodiversity in a rapidly warming world
- Climate Change, 126:1-6
- Terry is second author!
- authors propose a framework for moving forward and say we need to
accept some risk to wildlife given need for renewable energy
- focus is more on wind than solar
Chock et al. (2021). Evaluating potential effects of solar power
facilities on wildlife from an animal behavior perspective.
- Conservation Science and Practice, 3(2)
- Addressed various behaviors (migration, foraging, etc.) and how they
might be impacted by solar
- possibly some good ideas for the small mammal study
Nordberg et al. (2021). Designing solar farms for synergistic
commercial and conservation outcomes.
- Solar Energy
- from abstract
- “Here, we explore opportunities among renewable energy generation,
agriculture, and conservation, through the co-location and innovative
design of PV solar energy farms on grazing and croplands.
- We identify opportunities whereby solar farms can be designed to
improve biodiversity, land condition, and conservation outcomes, while
maintaining or increasing commercial returns.
- “The increased structural complexity provided by solar panels
provide nesting and perch sites for many birds (Beatty et al., 2017;
DeVault et al., 2014; Peschel, 2010) including ground nesting birds,
which also likely benefit from added protection from aerial
predators.
- “During the construction phase of PV solar projects, wildlife is
often displaced (Hernandez et al., 2014; Lovich and Ennen, 2011; Turney
and Fthenakis, 2011), but if managed well, wildlife will repopulate
sites following construction (Peschel, 2010).
- –> good info on general environemntal changes such as soil
moisture, etc.
Northrup & Wittemyer. (2013). Characterising the impacts of
emerging energy development on wildlife, with an eye towards
mitigation.
- Ecology Letters, 16:112-125
- Review of different energies (wind, bioenergy, unconventional oil
and natural gas, solar, and geothermal)
- the info seems out of date - they said, “We found no empirical
peer-reviewed research on the impacts of either solar … on
wildlife.”
Schwarz & Ziv (2024) Shedding light on biodiversity: reviewing
existing knowledge and exploring hypothesised impacts of
agrophotovoltaics.
- Biological Reviews
- a large review on all sorts of impacts on the environment but
doesn’t really touch on bird strikes. The only discussion of
biodiversity is:
- “Ground-mounted PV power plants require land grading, compaction,
and removal of topsoil (Pimentel Da Silva et al., 2020), which along
with vehicular activity, can kill or entrap hibernating or aestivating
animals.”
- “PV power plants and their supporting infrastructure creates
barriers for the movement of species, reducing connectivity between
populations (3 in Fig. 3; Gasparatos et al., 2017), leading, for
example, to loss of population genetic diversity (Saunders, Hobbs &
Margules, 1991). Access roads and fencing, often necessary for security,
further exacerbate habitat fragmentation by limiting wildlife movement
through previously open ecological corridors (3a in Fig. 3; Chiabrando
et al., 2009; Turney & Fthenakis, 2011; Caprioli et al., 2023).
While some species may benefit from new hiding spots or perching sites
(Fthenakis et al., 2011), or nesting sites within the power plant area
(Hernandez et al., 2014), others, including opportunistic and non-native
species such as non-native invasive species, may proliferate in the
altered microclimate under the PV panels (Guerin, 2017; Pimentel Da
Silva et al., 2020). High-voltage power lines connecting the plant to
the grid can act as seemingly impenetrable barriers (Tyler et al.,
2014), emitting UV light that can be detected by species including
insects, birds, rodents, and reindeer (3b in Fig. 3; Hogg et al., 2011).
This can cause avoidance behaviour (Tyler et al., 2014) and thus
exacerbate habitat fragmentation (Vistnes et al., 2004).”
- there were comments on other impacts on wildlife, e.g.,
electromagnetic fields and light pollution
- –> lots of good references
3. Environmental impacts of solar - on birds
Anderson et al. (2025). Assessing the Impact of Solar Farms on
Waterbirds: A Literature Review of Ecological Interactions and Habitat
Alterations.
- Conservation, 5(1), 4.
- Review paper - lots of good info
- great methods for how to conduct a review
- Goal: conduct a comprehensive global literature review to determine
the impacts of solar farms on waterbirds with a focus on waterfowl
- how solar farms impact abiotic factors such as the potential for
environmental contamination, microclimate, and land use;
- the ways solar farms affect wildlife interactions through changes in
migration, mating behavior, food web dynamics, species interactions, and
resource availability; and
- ways to minimize the negative impacts of solar farm installation on
abiotic factors and wildlife, with a focus on migratory waterfowl, and
provide insights that can inform the careful planning and implementation
of renewable energy infrastructure to balance ecological protection with
the need to reduce carbon emissions.
- Results - land use
- modifications in microclimate, hydrology, soils, and vegetation have
a cascading effect on wildlife, land conversion leading to habitat
fragmentation is a major threat to biodiversity,
- Solar farms are often sited in undeveloped rural areas that
frequently serve as critical wildlife movement corridors, potentially
altering the biogeography of rare, at-risk, or endangered species
[74].
- The amount of land used to create solar farms can create significant
barriers for wildlife species, disrupting movement patterns critical to
life cycles and ecological needs [75].
- Results - wildlife interactions
- Species may experience altered home ranges when their range overlaps
with solar arrays [75].
- The installation of solar farms near open water and agricultural
fields can create benefits for certain wildlife species based on the
method of site development but can increase avian mortality
- Extrapolated avian mortality counts have shown that solar farms are
responsible for 37,000–138,000 avian mortality cases annually across the
United States [85].
- Despite the negative impacts produced on avian species, some studies
have found that solar farms support higher bird species richness,
diversity, and abundance, particularly for invertebrate eaters and
ground foragers, likely due to their increased structural diversity;
however, these increases may be more related to the surrounding
landscape [89,94,95].
- –> look at papers and count number that deal with SW
versus elsewhere
- –> connected solar panel collisions to window
collisions
- Results - relevance to wetlands
- Migratory waterfowl may confuse a large farm of photovoltaic panels
for waterbodies through the “lake effect hypothesis,” increasing their
risk of injury or death [83,105,106].
- while the lake effect may not lead to significant increases in bird
mortality events, diversity at sites with adjacent photovoltaic panels
was lower compared to nearby natural wetlands [66].
- many of the studies involved in our review did not find strong
evidence to support the “lake effect hypothesis.”
- while direct mortality events could be lower than expected, the
installation of photovoltaic panels could alter migratory routes.
Waterfowl and other wetland-dependent species that are nocturnal
migrants accounted for almost half of the avian deaths at solar
facilities [106]. The surrounding landscapes utilized by avian species
may play a role in species mortality composition and numbers [106].
- Our literature review found five articles that examined the
interactions between waterbirds and solar infrastructure
[64,66,83,84,107].
- Conclusions
- Studies have shown that upon review, while there may be an increase
in the number of generalist species, there tends to be a decrease in
specialists [95,112].
- –> look at generalists v
specialists
- –> look at changes in waterbird distribution
specifically
- Many wetlands are used as overwintering habitats for migratory birds
due to their co-occurrence with the major flyways used by migratory
species. Solar engineering should implement measures that reduce the
potential risks of collisions due to the “lake effect.” UV-treated
glass, along with different patterning techniques, has shown promise in
providing the visual cues needed for birds to distinguish between clear
glass and open flight space [121]. The application of white borders
around the edges of solar panels also helps to break up the uniformity
of solar farms, decreasing the potential impacts of the “lake effect”
[122]. However, it should be noted that studies have also found that the
“lake effect” may not be a universal signal or sighting for all
waterfowl species [107]. Studies should examine the site distribution
and fidelity for critical species of concern and should installations be
placed near wetlands, selecting those that will have the most negligible
impact on their migration and habitat usage.
- –> Lots of good references!
Copping et al. (2025). Solar farm management influences breeding
bird responses in an arable-dominated landscape.
- Bird Study, 1–6.
- from abstract: “We explored bird populations on six solar farms in
the East Anglian Fens, using an adapted Breeding Bird Survey across 23.2
km of transects, recording birds seen or heard within 100 m of transects
(4 ha survey area).
- “Solar farms were divided by management styles: simple habitat solar
(10 transects) and mixed habitat solar (13 transects). We also surveyed
15.2 km of transects in arable farmland. Solar farms contained a greater
bird abundance and species richness than arable farmland, but this
varied with solar farm management (predicted abundance ±SE per 4 ha:
solar with mixed habitat = 31.5 ± 6.4, solar with simple habitat = 17 ±
4.9, arable = 11.9 ± 2.6; predicted species richness ± SE per 4 ha:
solar with mixed habitat = 13.5 ± 1.1, solar with simple habitat = 5.3 ±
0.6, arable = 5.5 ± 0.6).
- “Our findings suggest that solar farms can benefit biodiversity in
arable-dominated landscapes, especially when managed with biodiversity
in mind.”
- “Across all counts, 15.9% of species (24.5% of individuals) were
BoCC Red-listed and 25% of species (38.6% of individuals) were BoCC
Amber-listed (see Table S1 for full list of species recorded, their
habitat association and BoCC status).”
- Mean abundance was highest in mixed habitat solar for 34 of the
total 44 species, compared to arable and simple habitat solar where the
mean abundance was highest for 5.5 and 4.5 species, respectively.”
- Summed across all species, model-fitted predicted abundance was
considerably higher in mixed habitat solar (Figure 2; mean = 35.1 birds
per 4 ha; SE ± 6.4) compared to simple habitat solar (mean = 17 ± 4.9)
and arable land ”
- “Each group’s response to land-use was modelled using a generalized
linear mixed model. The response variable was summed abundance, with
land-use category as a three-level fixed effect (arable, simple habitat
solar, mixed habitat solar), and site as a random effect. Models were
fitted with a negative binomial distribution and fitted abundance values
were estimated for each land-use category at the transect section level
(4 ha). Models were run per group (all species, BoCC Red-/Amber-listed,
farmland birds and woodland birds). This was repeated for species
richness, where the response variable was the total number of species
recorded on each transect across both visits combined. We evaluated
spatial autocorrelation by using the Moran’s I statistic. The test
revealed no significant spatial autocorrelation (all species abundance:
Moran’s I = –0.05, P = 0.62; all species richness: Moran’s I = 0.04, P =
0.22; for details see Table S2). Individual species were not modelled,
but we report their mean abundance for comparison across the three
different land-use classifications.
- “Our findings largely support the work of Montag et al. (2016), who
observed greater abundance and species richness of multiple taxa,
including birds, within solar farms compared to control plots within
nearby arable land.
- “In our results, mixed habitat solar farms appeared to offer greater
structural heterogeneity than nearby arable land, and had more
individual birds and bird species; on the other hand, simple habitat
solar farms apparently offered only marginally greater structural
diversity than arable fields, having a similar abundance and richness of
birds. In addition to diverse habitat and greater sward length, the
mixed habitat solar farms also contained woody features, such as
hedgerows or boundary trees, which were the likely cause of the greater
abundance of woodland generalists compared to arable and simple habitat
solar.”
DeVault et al. (2014) Bird use of solar photovoltaic installations
at US airports: Implications for aviation safety.
- Goal: explore how PV arrays at airports influences bird communities
on and around airports
- hypotheses as to why birds are attracted to PV arrays:
- provide shade and perches which are limited in grasslands
- DeVault, Kubel, Rhodes, & Dolbeer, 2009; DeVault et al.,
2012
- reflect polarized light which attracts insects and thus
insectivorous birds
- Horváth, Kriska, Malik, & Robertson, 2009
- mistaken for open water
- Horváth, Kriska, Malik, & Robertson, 2009
- Methods
- paired airport and solar array (< 20 km apart)
- established 3-4 300 m transects at airfields and 1-3 at the arrays
- see references for other ideas?
- Results
- observed more birds per area in PVAs than airfields
- found fewer bird spp in PVAs than in airfields
- though comparing mown field to PVA
- observations suggest that some small birds used PVAs for shade and
perches
- little evidence that birds using PVAs responded to
- reflected polarized light
- increased abundance / availability of insects
- observed no casualties obviously caused by collision
- rarely observed birds foraging near PVAs
- Conclusion
- “our study supports the view that solar development is generally
detrimental to wildlife at the local scale”
- Birds found in WI that decreased between airfield and solar:
- common raven, barn swallow, american crow, grasshopper sparrow,
canada goose, brown-headed cowbird, mallard
- Birds found in WI that increased between airfield and solar:
- brewer’s blackbird, house finch, horned lark, northern flicker,
mourning dove, starling, robin, dark-eyed junco, goldfinch, bluejay
Fthenakis et al. (2011). Large photovoltaic power plants: Wildlife
impacts and benefits.
- In 2011 37th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference.
- About the desert southwest
- “Habitat for migratory songbirds including nesting habitat: To
assess changes in habitat for migratory songbirds, point count surveys
will be conducted and compared to a ten year data set for the area.
Cameras will be used to determine if birds utilize LISF arrays for
perching, hunting area, and foraging.”
Golawski et al. (2025). Increased bird diversity around small-scale
solar energy plants in agricultural landscape.
- Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 379, 109361.
- from abstract:
- “We conducted surveys at 43 PV with an area not exceeding 5.3 ha and
43 control sites, finding that PV generally enhanced avifauna
diversity.
- “The PV probably provide safe breeding sites, grassy areas that are
mown late in the season or left unmown, and fences that serve as
observation points, foraging sites, and singing perches for birds.
- “Our results are specific to relatively small, isolated PV that are
typical in Poland and central Europe; further research is warranted to
assess the impact of larger PV on avian populations and on particular
aspects of bird life traits as well as presence and density.”
- “This study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of avifauna
diversity within small-scale PV located in farmland in Poland.”
- used point counts
Grossweiner. (2024). An Experimental Assessment Of Polarized Light’s
Role In Avian An Experimental Assessment Of Polarized Light’s Role In
Avian Behavior Toward Water: Implications For Collisions With Pv Solar
Panels.
- thesis
- have not read - just looked at for sources
Guerin, T. (2017). A case study identifying and mitigating the
environmental and community impacts from construction of a utility-scale
solar photovoltaic power plant in eastern Australia.
- Solar Energy, 146, 94–104.
- “The purpose of this paper is to identify the risks pertaining to
environmental and community issues expected during construction of a
USSE photovoltaic power plant in the state of New South Wales,
Australia, and then compare these to those identified in the
field.”
- “The pre-construction fauna surveys identified a total of 24 native
bird, 2 native mammal, 3 exotic mammal and 12 microbat species within
the development area (which was wider than the current study
area).”
- “Twenty fauna deaths were reported on the project which were
primarily of Myna and Apostle birds as a result of vehicle–bird
interactions and no GCBs were killed.”
- “No injuries or deaths of avifauna or any other fauna were
attributable to the solar plant infrastructure.”
Hernandez et al. (2014). Environmental impacts of utility-scale
solar energy.
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 29, 766–779.
- from abstract: “we review direct and indirect environmental impacts–
both beneficial and adverse– of utility-scale solar energy (USSE)
development, including impacts on biodiversity, land-use and land-cover
change, soils, water resources, and human health.”
- in desert southwest
- “…Hernandez (unpublished data) observed nests on the backside of PV
module infrastructure”
Jarčuška et al. (2024) Solar parks can enhance bird diversity in
agricultural landscape.
- Abstract only; SI downloaded but no list of bird spp
- Goal: investigate the impact of ground-mounted solar parks on
species richness, abundance, Shannon diversity and composition of bird
communities in Slovakia, taking into account pre-construction land
cover, elevation and landscape context.
- Methods
- We recorded breeding, foraging or perching birds on 32 solar park
plots and 32 adjacent control plots (two hectares each) during a single
breeding season.
- Results
- solar parks supported higher total bird species richness and
diversity, and richness and abundance of invertebrate-eaters, and that
the abundance of ground-foragers was higher in solar parks developed on
grassland than in grassland control plots.
Karban et al. (2024). Predicting the effects of solar energy
development on plants and wildlife in the Desert Southwest, United
States.
- Abstract only
- Goal:
- Methods
- review
- a framework is presented for predicting the effects of USSE
development on plants and wildlife by linking disturbance types
associated with USSE construction and operation to the traits and
response strategies of species and guilds.
- Results
- Case studies from representative Desert Southwest species and guilds
of conservation concern
- This framework predicts that species with trait plasticity and broad
ecological niches will be capable of exploiting USSE development, while
species with specific habitat requirements and narrow niches will be
more vulnerable.
Kosciuch et al. (2020). A summary of bird mortality at photovoltaic
utility scale solar facilities in the SW U.S.
- Goal: search gray and primary literature for fatality studies;
synthesize said studies
- interested in species composition and fatality estimates and how
patterns varied spatially and temporally among facilities
- diurnal raptors, water-associated (can walk on and take off from
land), and water obligate (rely on water for take-off and landing)
- supplemental information provides list of species
- Results:
- 90% of site years saw water obligate birds
McCrary et al. (1986). Mortality at a solar energy power plant.
- Old and based on concentrated solar tower, not PV panels
Montag et al. (2016). The Effects of Solar Farms on Local
Biodiversity; A Comparative Study.
- from summary
- “This study investigates whether solar farms can lead to greater
ecological diversity when compared with equivalent undeveloped sites.
The research focussed on four key indicators; botany (both grasses and
broadleaved plants), invertebrates (specifically butterflies and
bumblebees), birds (including notable species and ground nesting birds)
and bats, assessing both species diversity and abundance in each
case.
- 11 solar farms
- “All sites had been completed for at least one growing season.
Approaches to land management varied from primarily livestock grazing
through to primarily wildlife-focused management. At each site the level
of management for wildlife was assessed as low, medium or high based
upon activities such as re-seeding, grazing or mowing regimes, use of
herbicides and management of hedgerows and field margins.”
- “To assess changes in biodiversity relating to the solar farm, we
compared wildlife in the solar farm to wildlife at a “control” plot
nearby. The control plot was outside the solar array, but within the
same farm. Most importantly, the control plot was under the same
management as the solar farm was prior to its construction. The purpose
of the control plot was to give an indication of wildlife levels before
the solar farm was constructed.
- “The bird surveys revealed that over all, a greater diversity of
birds was found within solar plots when compared with control plots. On
two of the sites, a greater abundance of birds was observed on the solar
farms when compared with control plots. The greater abundance and
species of birds on these sites suggests foraging opportunities within
the solar farms are greater than on the adjacent undeveloped
sites.”
- “When weighting bird species according to their conservation status,
solar farms scored significantly higher in terms of bird diversity and
abundance, indicating their importance for declining bird species. The
decline of many of these species has been attributed to intensification
of agricultural practices. Solar farms with a focus on wildlife
management tend towards limited use of pesticides, lower livestock
stocking densities and the re-establishment of field margins, which
would benefit many of these bird species.”
Smallwood (2022). Utility‐scale solar impacts to volant
wildlife.
- Abstract only
- Goal: To estimate species‐specific bird and bat fatality rates and
statewide mortality
- Methods:
- reviewed reports of fatality monitoring from 1982 to 2018 at 14
projects
- Results:
- Bird fatality rates averaged 3 times higher at PV projects searched
by foot rather than car. They were usually biased low by insufficient
monitoring duration and by the 22% of fatalities that monitors could not
identify to species.
- I estimated that construction grading for solar projects removed
habitat that otherwise would have supported nearly 300,000
birds/year.
Smith & Dwyer (2016). Avian interactions with renewable energy
infrastructure: An update.
- Abstract only
- Goal: review studies that have examined direct and indirect effects
on birds at utility-scale onshore wind- and solar-energy facilities,
including their associated transmission lines.
- Mostly about tall structures, i.e., the power lines more than the
panels themselves
vander Zanden et al. (2024). The geographic extent of bird
populations affected by renewable‐energy development.
- Conservation Biology, 38(2).
- Looked at geographic patterns in the origin of fatalities (i.e.,
where the birds were from)
Walston et al. (2016). A preliminary assessment of avian mortality
at utility-scale solar energy facilities in the United States.
- Goal: contextualize avian mortality relative to other forms of avian
mortality at a regional (southern CA) and national scale
- Results:
- at both spatial scales, avian mortalities at solar arrays were
consistently lower than other human activities (but possibly because
solar less prevalent than, say, wind)
- Conclusion:
- “Moving forward, several data needs and recommendations can be made
to improve understanding of avian fatality issues at USSE facilities:
- 1 There is a basic need to better understand the causal factors that
contribute to fatalities, such as siting considerations, the potential
for avian attraction to USSE facilities (e.g., the“lake effect”
hypothesis), and project design (e.g., whether evaporative cooling ponds
are used).
- 2 There is a need for more standardized, consistent, and
science-based avian monitoring protocols to improve comparability of the
data being collected. Standardized monitoring methodologies will improve
the scientific certainty of conclusions about avian mortality.
- 3 As efforts get under way to improve the quality of avian mortality
data collected from USSE facilities, researchers should focus on (a)
uncertainties related to avian risks; (b) population-level impacts to
migratory birds; (c) development of more effective inventory and
monitoring techniques; and (d) developing appropriate and cost-effective
mitigation measures and best management practices to reduce mortality
risk.”
- Methods: Literature review
- had great information on how to calculate mortality based on field
data
- Notes:
- good info in introduction about types of mortality and influences on
mortality
Young et al. (2025). Impacts of Solar Energy Development On Breeding
Birds in Desert Grasslands In South Central New Mexico.
- Environmental Management, 75(4), 883–895.
- really good info on effects of solar on vegetation thus birds
- from abstract
- “In 2014 and 2015 we examined the influence of a solar facility on
avian community occupancy in the Nutt grasslands of south-central New
Mexico. We examined the effect of distance to solar facility as well as
other habitat covariates, including vegetation structure and orthopteran
abundance, on community occupancy and occupancy trends for individual
species.
- “We did not find a significant effect of distance to solar facility
on occupancy probability for the songbird community. Instead,
orthopteran abundance had a significant positive effect on occupancy
probability for the community.
- “Two synanthropic species, Eurasian-collared dove (Streptopelia
decaocto), and house finch (Haemorhous mexicanus), were found almost
exclusively within the solar facility and both species increased between
years, suggesting that developments in natural habitats may facilitate
populations of synanthropic species.
- “These results demonstrate the variability in responses of different
species to a solar facility and the interacting influence of habitat
characteristics and disturbance associated with development.”
- “Many studies have examined effects of habitat fragmentation related
to energy development on grassland birds, though the focus has most
often been wind energy. Wind turbines in Texas displaced LeConte’s
sparrows (Ammodramus leconteii) up to 400 m, and oil wells in Canada
displaced Baird’s sparrows (A. bairdii) and Sprague’s pipits (Anthus
spragueii) up to 450 m (Linnen, 2008; Stevens et al., 2013).”
- “Displacement may also occur through avoidance of edges produced by
roads associated with development (Ingel nger and Anderson, 2004; Dale
et al., 2009; Carlin and Chalfoun, 2021).”
- “Vertical structures within open habitats are well established as a
factor that can lower habitat use for grassland and shrubland songbirds,
potentially due to increases in perceived or actual predation risk (Tack
et al., 2017; Nenninger and Koper, 2018).”
- “Infrastructure and management activities associated with solar
facilities may indirectly affect habitat use for the songbird community
through altered vegetation structure (Conkling et al., 2022).
- “Solar facilities may alter habitat vegetation to a greater or
lesser degree, either by the complete removal of vegetation under solar
panels (hereafter ‘blading’) or by reducing the height and/or cover of
vegetation through management including mowing or herbicide.
- “The majority of songbirds in Southwestern arid habitats are ground
or shrub nesting species, and species associated with these habitats are
not homogenous in their breeding habitat preferences (Fisher and Davis,
2010; Sadoti et al., 2018). Therefore, changes to vegetation
characteristics associated with the establishment and operation of solar
facilities are likely to affect individual species within the community
in a manner dependent on the degree and type of vegetation change, given
varied habitat associations.
- “For species such as horned lark (Eremophila alpestris), which is
associated with sparsely vegetated habitats, reductions in vegetation
cover associated with energy facility maintenance may not impact habitat
use (Beason, 2020). However, at facilities where blading occurs, habitat
condition is unlikely to support ground-nesting songbirds regardless of
habitat associations because all of the vegetation is removed.
- “Vegetation structure may also impact the abundance and composition
of the arthropod community
- “Therefore, quantifying the potential effects of solar facilities on
the distribution of preferred food resources for songbirds may be
important for understanding the overall effect of energy facilities on
habitat quality.
- “Evidence suggests that shade provided by solar arrays can decrease
ground temperatures and increase soil moisture, important considerations
for facilities in arid environments (Armstrong et al., 2016; Hassanpour
Adeh et al., 2018).
- “As the prevalence of drought and higher daily temperatures increase
due to climate change, cooler microclimates associated with solar
facilities may benefit ground-nesting birds by reducing heat stress and
water loss (Smith et al., 2017; Ruth et al., 2020).
- “Further, management practices that promote higher diversity of
native vegetation support higher arthropod diversity, a potentially
important habitat characteristic for breeding songbirds (Blaydes et al.,
2021).
- methods
- measured avian diversity with point counts
- measured diversity in and around the array
- “The formulation of the biological process model Zi,k,t is the true
but unobservable occupancy status at site i of species k in year t which
assumes a Bernoulli distribution with probability φ.
Yuzyk A. V. (2024). Global insights on the impact of solar power
plants on bird populations.
- most “studies primarily focus on mortality factors, forecasting bird
mortality as the total capacity and area of photovoltaic installations
increase.”
- “However, it is already well-established that bird mortality at
solar energy facilities is the lowest compared to fossil fuelbased
plants and other renewable energy sources.”
Zaplata & Dullau (2022). Applying Ecological Succession Theory
to Birds in Solar Parks: An Approach to Address Protection and
Planning.
- Land, 11(5).
- from abstract:
- “We use time-series data alongside a meta-study on birds in solar
parks, utilizing succession theory to indicate which bird groups can
thrive in solar parks. Using an evidence-based and interdisciplinary
approach, we documented biodiversity and conditions at a 6 ha site in
the newly created post-mining landscape of Lusatia, Germany, for 16
years, grouping avian species depending on the ecosystem state in which
they were observed.
- In a key mid-period of early succession lasting eight years, the
avifauna was characterized by successional groups 2, herbaceous
plant-preferring, ground-breeding species; and 3, open shrub-preferring
species.
- The preceding and following groups were: (1) pioneer bird species
that prefer open ground; and (4), pre-forest species. Comparison of
these data with available bird monitoring in solar parks showed that
bird species of groups 2 and 3 can also successfully settle in
open-space solar parks that have some natural habitat attributes,
whereas this is hardly possible for the preceding and following
groups.”
- “Birds respond to changes in ecosystems and are therefore considered
sensitive bioindicators [9,10]; this applies primarily or especially to
persistent long-term changes in the environment [11]. Thus, wider
habitat use by birds and the bird communities that are found in
different habitats coincide in the longer term [11], and directional
habitat dynamics, e.g., ecological succession, goes hand in hand with
succession in bird communities [12].”
- the data were collected in an old mining catchement and then applied
to solar parks…
- “Bird observations from the Hühnerwasser catchment were compared
with data from a comprehensive review of birds in solar parks in Germany
by Badelt et al. (2020, [35]).”
4. Small mammals
NEED TO READ:
Lemm & Tobler (2021) Factors Affecting the Presence and
Abundance of Amphibians, Reptiles, and Small Mammals under Artificial
Cover in Southern California
Chock et al. (2021). Evaluating potential effects of solar power
facilities on wildlife from an animal behavior perspective.
- Conservation Science and Practice, 3(2).
- Addressed various behaviors (migration, foraging, etc.) and how they
might be impacted by solar
- possibly some good ideas for the small mammal study
Fthenakis et al. (2011). Large photovoltaic power plants: Wildlife
impacts and benefits.
- In 2011 37th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference.
- About the desert southwest
- “Habitat for small mammals: To assess changes of habitat for small
mammals, standardized small mammal trapping will be conducted using
Sherman live traps. Data collected will include species present, weight,
sex, population density, and biodiversity indices. Compared data
analysis to vegetation recovery and habitat change.”
- “Wildlife openings in LISF fence: A fence is designed to keep deer
out while openings in the fence are designed to allow mammals access.
Wildlife cameras will be set up at multiple openings to determine use
from both interior and exterior access points.
- This paper is more about what they plan to do than what they
learned.
Montag et al. (2016). The Effects of Solar Farms on Local
Biodiversity; A Comparative Study.
- from summary: “To assess changes in biodiversity relating to the
solar farm, we compared wildlife in the solar farm to wildlife at a
“control” plot nearby. The control plot was outside the solar array, but
within the same farm. Most importantly, the control plot was under the
same management as the solar farm was prior to its construction. The
purpose of the control plot was to give an indication of wildlife levels
before the solar farm was constructed.”
Nordberg et al. (2021). Designing solar farms for synergistic
commercial and conservation outcomes.
- Solar Energy
- from abstract
- “Here, we explore opportunities among renewable energy generation,
agriculture, and conservation, through the co-location and innovative
design of PV solar energy farms on grazing and croplands.
- We identify opportunities whereby solar farms can be designed to
improve biodiversity, land condition, and conservation outcomes, while
maintaining or increasing commercial returns.
- “The increased structural complexity provided by solar panels
provide nesting and perch sites for many birds (Beatty et al., 2017;
DeVault et al., 2014; Peschel, 2010) including ground nesting birds,
which also likely benefit from added protection from aerial
predators.
- “Solar farm boundary fences may also provide additional protection
for prey species residing within solar farms, as some terrestrial
predators may be deterred by facility boundary fences (Sinha et al.,
2018).
5. Census methods
NEED TO READ:
Morrison M. 2002. Searcher bias and scavenging rates in bird/wind
energy studies.
DeVault et al. (2014) Bird use of solar photovoltaic installations
at US airports: Implications for aviation safety.
- Goal: explore how PV arrays at airports influences bird communities
on and around airports
- Conclusion
- “our study supports the view that solar development is generally
detrimental to wildlife at the local scale”
- hypotheses as to why birds are attracted to PV arrays:
- provide shade and perches which are limited in grasslands
- DeVault, Kubel, Rhodes, & Dolbeer, 2009; DeVault et al.,
2012
- reflect polarized light which attracts insects and thus
insectivorous birds
- Horváth, Kriska, Malik, & Robertson, 2009
- mistaken for open water
- Horváth, Kriska, Malik, & Robertson, 2009
- Methods
- paired airport and solar array (< 20 km apart)
- established 3-4 300 m transects at airfields and 1-3 at the arrays
- see references for other ideas?
- Results
- observed more birds per area in PVAs than airfields
- found fewer bird spp in PVAs than in airfields
- though comparing mown field to PVA
- observations suggest that some small birds used PVAs for shade and
perches
- little evidence that birds using PVAs responded to
- reflected polarized light
- increased abundance / availability of insects
- observed no casualties obviously caused by collision
- rarely observed birds foraging near PVAs
Fthenakis et al. (2011). Large photovoltaic power plants: Wildlife
impacts and benefits.
- In 2011 37th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference.
- About the desert southwest
- “Habitat for migratory songbirds including nesting habitat: To
assess changes in habitat for migratory songbirds, point count surveys
will be conducted and compared to a ten year data set for the area.
Cameras will be used to determine if birds utilize LISF arrays for
perching, hunting area, and foraging.”
Golawski et al. (2025). Increased bird diversity around small-scale
solar energy plants in agricultural landscape.
- Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment
- Goal: measure avifauna diversity within PV arrays and impacts of
bird species in farmland
- Location: Poland
- Methods
- Great methods for bird surveys at the PV arrays, including data
analysis
6. Solar in general
Government Publications Office. (2025). Global Energy Review
2025.
- “The latest data show that the world’s appetite for energy rose at a
faster-than-average pace in 2024, resulting in higher demand for all
energy sources, including oil, natural gas, coal, renewables and nuclear
power. This growth was led by the power sector, with demand for
electricity rising almost twice as fast as wider energy demand due to
higher demand for cooling, rising consumption by industry, the
electrification of transport and the growth of data centres and
artificial intelligence.”
- “Nearly all of the rise in electricity demand was met by
low-emissions sources, led by the record-breaking expansion of solar PV
capacity, with further growth in other renewables and nuclear
power.”
- Global energy demand grew by 2.2% in 2024 – faster than the average
rate over the past decade. Demand for all fuels and technologies
expanded in 2024. The increase was led by the power sector as
electricity demand surged by 4.3%, well above the 3.2% growth in global
GDP, driven by record temperatures, electrification and digitalisation.
Renewables accounted for the largest share of the growth in global
energy supply (38%), followed by natural gas (28%), coal (15%), oil
(11%) and nuclear (8%).”
- “Rising global electricity use was driven by factors such as
increasing cooling demand resulting from extreme temperatures, growing
consumption by industry, the electrification of transport, and the
expansion of the data centre sector. Electricity use in buildings
accounted for nearly 60% of overall growth in 2024. The installed
capacity of data centres globally increased by an estimated 20%, or
around 15 gigawatts (GW), mostly in the United States and China.
Meanwhile, the continued growth in the uptake of electric vehicles
resulted in a rise in electricity use in transport. Global sales of
electric cars rose by over 25%, surpassing 17 million units and
accounting for one-fifth of all car sales, in line with the IEA’s
projections for 2024.”
- “In 2024, 80% of the growth in global electricity generation was
provided by renewable sources and nuclear power. Together, they
contributed 40% of total generation for the first time, with renewables
alone supplying 32%. New renewables installations hit record levels for
the 22nd consecutive year, with around 700 GW of total renewable
capacity added in 2024, nearly 80% of which was solar PV. Generation
from solar PV and wind increased by a record 670 TWh, while generation
from natural gas rose by 170 TWh and coal by 90 TWh. In the European
Union, the share of generation provided by solar PV and wind surpassed
the combined share of coal and gas for the first time. In the United
States, solar PV and wind’s share rose to 16%, overtaking that of coal.
In China, solar PV and wind reached nearly 20% of total
generation.”
7. Southwest strikes
Hernandez et al. (2014). Environmental impacts of utility-scale
solar energy.
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 29, 766–779.
- from abstract: “we review direct and indirect environmental impacts–
both beneficial and adverse– of utility-scale solar energy (USSE)
development, including impacts on biodiversity, land-use and land-cover
change, soils, water resources, and human health.”
- in desert southwest
- “…Hernandez (unpublished data) observed nests on the backside of PV
module infrastructure”
Kosciuch et al. (2020) A summary of bird mortality at photovoltaic
utility scale solar facilities in the SW U.S.
- PLoS ONE, 15(4).
- Goal: search gray and primary literature for fatality studies;
synthesize said studies
- interested in species composition and fatality estimates and how
patterns varied spatially and temporally among facilities
- diurnal raptors, water-associated (can walk on and take off from
land), and water obligate (rely on water for take-off and landing)
- supplemental information provides list of species
- Results:
- 90% of site years saw water obligate birds
Kosciuch et al. (2021). Aquatic Habitat Bird Occurrences at
Photovoltaic Solar Energy Development in Southern California, USA.
- Diversity, 13(11), 524.
- from abstract: “our research objective was to examine the species
composition, abundance, and distribution of live and dead aquatic
habitat birds at five PV solar facilities and paired reference areas in
southern California. … we collected data from a small regional lake as
an indicator of the potential aquatic habitat bird community that could
occur at our study sites.
- Using an ordination analysis, we found the lake grouped away from
the other study sites. Although the bird community (live and dead) at
the solar facilities contained aquatic habitat species, Chao’s diversity
was higher, and standardized use was more than an order of magnitude
higher at the lake.
- … we did not observe aquatic habitat bird fatalities in the
desert/scrub and grassland reference areas. Thus, the idea of a “lake
effect” in which aquatic habitat birds perceive a PV USSE facility as a
waterbody and are broadly attracted is likely a nuanced process as a PV
solar facility is unlikely to provide a signal of a lake to all aquatic
habitat birds at all times.
Fthenakis et al. (2011). Large photovoltaic power plants: Wildlife
impacts and benefits.
- In 2011 37th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference.
- About the desert southwest
8. Species distribution
Golawski et al. (2025) Increased bird diversity around small-scale
solar energy plants in agricultural landscape.
- Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment
- Goal: measure avifauna diversity within PV arrays and impacts of
bird species in farmland
- Location: Poland
- Results: “Our research demonstrates that areas with PV have slightly
increased overall avifauna diversity.”
- Note: good general information; made point that most work is done in
arid areas and this work was done on farmland
Sullivan et al. (2014).The eBird enterprise: An integrated approach
to development and application of citizen science
- Biological Conservation
- –> NEED TO ANNOTATE
9. Species at PVs
DeVault et al. (2014) Bird use of solar photovoltaic installations
at US airports: Implications for aviation safety.
- Goal: explore how PV arrays at airports influences bird communities
on and around airports
- Birds found in WI that decreased between airfield and solar:
- common raven, barn swallow, american crow, grasshopper sparrow,
canada goose, brown-headed cowbird, mallard
- Birds found in WI that increased between airfield and solar:
- brewer’s blackbird, house finch, horned lark, northern flicker,
mourning dove, starling, robin, dark-eyed junco, goldfinch, bluejay
Kosciuch et al. (2020). A summary of bird mortality at photovoltaic
utility scale solar facilities in the SW U.S.
- PLoS ONE, 15(4).
- Goal: search gray and primary literature for fatality studies;
synthesize said studies
- interested in species composition and fatality estimates and how
patterns varied spatially and temporally among facilities
- diurnal raptors, water-associated (can walk on and take off from
land), and water obligate (rely on water for take-off and landing)
- supplemental information provides list of species
- Results:
- 90% of site years saw water obligate birds
10. Cranes and ag
11. Cranes and ag - deterrents