Overview

Bahia, located on Brazil’s east coast, holds historical and ecological significance. The capital, Salvador, once was the colonial capital of Brazil 1. Since the 16th century, Bahia has been a major producer of goods such as sugar 2 and remains an important contributor of many goods to Brazil’s economy today. The state is home to three main biomes: the Caatinga, the Atlantic Forest, and the Cerrado. This study focuses on the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado due to their critical ecological importance. Both are recognized globally as “biodiversity hotspots,” each supporting over 1,500 native plant species while having lost more than 70% of their original vegetation 3. These biomes face significant threats from agricultural expansion and pollution, leading to extensive landscape degradation. Here’s some info on modern tree cover in Bahia.

Figure 1: Map of the modern day biomes in Brazil with an extent indicator highlighting Bahia [^4]

Figure 1: Map of the modern day biomes in Brazil with an extent indicator highlighting Bahia 4

The Atlantic Forest, located along Bahia’s eastern coast, once extended throughout southern Bahia. Southern Bahia was historically regarded as the “Central Corridor of the Atlantic Forest” 5, but deforestation has severely reduced its expanse, as seen below in figure 2. High rates of land conversion for agriculture, such as eucalyptus plantations and livestock, have exacerbated this decline, leaving the Atlantic Forest highly fragmented. Despite its ecological value, ongoing deforestation poses a critical threat to this biome.

Meanwhile, the Cerrado, in western Bahia, has faced increasing pressures from agricultural expansion, especially as part of the MATOPIBA region, as seen below in figure 2. Since 2023, deforestation rates have decreased in the Amazon but have risen in the Cerrado due to the growing demand for cropland 6. This biome is under significant threat from large-scale agriculture and its associated pollution, further endangering its rich biodiversity.

Figure 2: Map of land use types in Bahia, taken from satellite imagery on 01/05/2021 [^7] [^8]

Figure 2: Map of land use types in Bahia, taken from satellite imagery on 01/05/2021 7 8

The future of these biomes depends on the implementation of sustainable land-use policies. Whether Bahia can balance economic development with environmental conservation will determine the fate of the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado as globally significant biodiversity hotspots.

Historical Land Use Change

The first capital city of Brazil was Salvador, established by Portuguese colonizers in 1549 and serving as the capital until 1763 9. Today, Salvador is the capital of Bahia and remains an important centre for Afro-Brazilian culture. With the arrival of the Portuguese, enslaved people were forced to work the land in Bahia, and sugar became the region’s dominant export 10. It was produced on a large scale in colonial sugar mills known as engenhos during the colonial period 11. The extensive sugar plantations significantly transformed Bahia’s landscape, with little understanding of or regard for the environmental consequences.

Figure 3: Celebrations in the historical centre of Salvador with the colonial mansion of Pelourinho as the backdrop [^12]

Figure 3: Celebrations in the historical centre of Salvador with the colonial mansion of Pelourinho as the backdrop 12

Another economically and socially important export for Bahia was tobacco. After the abolition of slavery in Brazil in 1888, tobacco gained prominence as sugar exports began to decline 13. Tobacco production relied on peasant farming, where impoverished families combined subsistence farming with tobacco cultivation 14. This provided former slaves with a degree of economic independence 15. Compared to large-scale sugar plantations, this system was less environmentally intensive and more sustainable, though it also led to economic dependence on peasant farmers to supply the crop for exporters 16.

Figure 4: Oil painting from 1635 of a typical colonial sugar mill in Bahia [^17]

Figure 4: Oil painting from 1635 of a typical colonial sugar mill in Bahia 17

In the mid-20th century, cacao became a crucial export in Bahia, particularly in the coastal Atlantic Forest regions 18. This development, however, contributed to widespread deforestation and degradation of these ecologically rich forests 19. As global agricultural demands grew in the modern era, land use in Bahia continued to expand. Between 1990 and 2020, the total area of agricultural and irrigated land in western Bahia increased significantly, by 3.17 million hectares and 193,000 hectares, respectively 20.

In recent decades, Brazil, including Bahia, has established itself as a leading force in global agriculture. Bahia forms part of the MATOPIBA agricultural frontier, comprising the states of Maranhão, Tocantins, Piauí, and Bahia, which has been a key region for agricultural expansion. However, this region includes large portions of the Cerrado biome, raising concerns about the environmental impact of agricultural growth 21.

Biodiversity and Conservation

The two major biodiversity hotspots in Brazil, the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado, are located within the state of Bahia. Biodiversity is a vital resource for Brazil, and sustainable management is essential to ensure the future of these biomes 22.

The Atlantic Forest

The Atlantic Forest has the second-highest biodiversity richness in South America, after the Amazon 23. It is exceptionally diverse, hosting over 20,000 species of trees and shrubs 24. This biome provides critical resources, including food, timber, and medicinal products 25. The abundance of valuable resources led to increased exploitation in the 20th century 26. Here’s just a few of the many species in the Atlantic Forest.

Figure 5: The undisturbed Atlantic Forest [^27]

Figure 5: The undisturbed Atlantic Forest 27

One significant species in the Atlantic Forest is the Theobroma cacao tree, which is widely cultivated for products consumed globally. Historically, cacao trees have been integral to the forest ecosystem 28. However, the surge in cacao production during the 20th century caused significant degradation in parts of these forests 29. In response, conservation strategies such as traditional agroforestry were promoted in Bahia. Traditional agroforests are historical cacao farming systems that are highly biodiverse and help sustain forest ecosystems 30. While these practices promote biodiversity and represent positive farming methods, recent public policies have pressured the Atlantic Forest to increase production, threatening its ecological balance 31.

Theobroma cacao tree Cacao agroforest in Bahia Cacao plantation in Bahia
Figure 6: Theobroma cacao tree 32 Figure 7: Cacao agroforest in Bahia 33 Figure 8: Cacao plantation in Bahia 34

The Cerrado

The Cerrado is another critical biodiversity hotspot, with new species being discovered every year 35. However, it is also under severe threat due to the rapid expansion of agriculture and livestock farming 36. Despite growing scientific knowledge of the Cerrado’s biodiversity over the past two decades, approximately 50% of the original biome has been converted into croplands, pastures, and planted forests 37. Here’s some info on communities living in the Cerrado in Bahia.

In Bahia, the Cerrado is regarded as an agricultural frontier, experiencing extensive anthropogenic activity and substantial biodiversity loss 38. From 2013 to 2020, the already fragmented regions of the Cerrado saw nearly a 4% decrease in vegetation cover, further exacerbating biodiversity risks 39. Conservation efforts are urgently needed, not only to protect large contiguous areas of the Cerrado but also to preserve biodiversity within its fragmented regions.

Figure 9: Ongoing conversion of the Cerrado for agriculture [^40]

Figure 9: Ongoing conversion of the Cerrado for agriculture 40

Agriculture

Extensive Agriculture

Brazilian agriculture has historically been characterized by extensification, particularly across biomes such as the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado 41. The country ranks among the world’s top ten exporters of agricultural products, benefiting from vast tracts of land available for farming 42. This has strengthened Brazil’s global importance in extensive agricultural practices. In recent years, intensive agriculture has gained popularity, but extensive methods remain prevalent 43.

The Atlantic Forest is one of Brazil’s most vital biomes but has suffered significant degradation due to extensive agriculture. Historically, southern Bahia’s Atlantic Forest was among the most well-preserved regions, known as the “Central Corridor of the Atlantic Forest” 44. However, between 1985 and 2019, approximately 59% of the Atlantic Forest in southern Bahia was degraded 45. This dramatic loss is largely attributed to the establishment of Eucalyptus sp. plantations and the conversion of forested areas into pastureland 46.

Tax incentives for wood production have intensified deforestation, making Eucalyptus sp. cultivation increasingly popular. By 2019, the total production value of Eucalyptus sp. in Brazil reached R$20 billion 47. These economic pressures, driven by Brazil’s role as a global exporter, have placed the Atlantic Forest under severe threat. The biome’s rich biodiversity is increasingly at risk due to the combined effects of agricultural expansion, deforestation, and economic policies favouring resource exploitation.

Figure 10: Extensive deforestation in the Atlantic Forest [^48]

Figure 10: Extensive deforestation in the Atlantic Forest 48

Meanwhile, the Cerrado, another critical Brazilian biome, has also faced significant pressures from agriculture. Deforestation in the Cerrado has intensified in recent years, driven by human activities that have profoundly altered its landscape. From 2013 to 2020, the Cerrado experienced a 3.85% loss of vegetation cover, with most of the destruction occurring in areas of natural vegetation 49. This trend is expected to continue, raising concerns about the biome’s future. Here’s some info on the expansion of soy production in Bahia.

Although the Cerrado offers fertile land for agricultural expansion, it is crucial to limit further encroachment to preserve its ecological balance 50. Moreover, protecting the already fragmented regions of the Cerrado is essential to maintaining its biodiversity, which is another factor contributing to the biome’s ongoing decline 51.

Figure 11: Aeiral view of the converted Cerrado croplands [^52]

Figure 11: Aeiral view of the converted Cerrado croplands 52

Intensive Agriculture

Intensive agriculture involves maximizing crop yields on small plots of land. The MATOPIBA region in Brazil, which includes parts of the Cerrado biome, is a key area for intensive farming due to its suitability for agricultural use. However, this expansion threatens the Cerrado, contributing to its degradation 53. Western Bahia has become an increasingly important agricultural frontier within MATOPIBA. The region’s environmental conditions, particularly the fertile Cerrado soils, are ideal for maize and other crops, allowing for at least two harvests per year 54, which has encouraged intensive farming practices. Over the past two decades, the area of maize harvested in Western Bahia has grown from 2.9 million hectares in 2000 to 13.7 million hectares in 2020 55. This rapid increase in farming has put significant pressure on the land, with long-term implications for both the environment and the region’s sustainability.

Although the high crop yields in Western Bahia are a clear benefit, the environmental impact of intensive farming is mostly negative. Despite covering only 1.5% of Brazil’s total land area, Western Bahia is one of the country’s largest soybean producers 56. A major concern is the environmental consequences of intensive irrigation, which strains water resources 57. While intensive agriculture reduces land clearing, allows for multiple high-yield crops per year, and simplifies farm management 58, the finite availability of water remains a critical issue. As water stress increases, conflicts have emerged over the development of further irrigation systems in the region 59. The future of intensive agriculture in MATOPIBA and Western Bahia is uncertain, but continued land-use changes are likely to affect the Cerrado’s biodiversity and exacerbate water insecurity.

Figure 12: Silos of soy prepared for exportation in Luís Eduardo Magalhães, Western Bahia [^60]

Figure 12: Silos of soy prepared for exportation in Luís Eduardo Magalhães, Western Bahia 60

Pollution

The Atlantic Forest and Cerrado are both critically endangered due to land clearing and the expansion of agriculture, with the associated pollution exacerbating the threat to biodiversity. One major consequence of this agricultural expansion is river pollution, which has worsened in areas such as the Atlantic Forest along the east coast of Bahia 61.

The Cachoeira River, located in southern Bahia, flows through the Atlantic Forest and is surrounded by agricultural land, livestock farms, and urban areas 62. Deforestation in the Cachoeira River basin has increased runoff, allowing pollutants to flow more easily into the river. Fertilizer use in agricultural activities, particularly in cocoa monocultures, has led to significant nutrient runoff, degrading water quality 63. Livestock farming also contributes to pollution, with nitrogen and phosphorus from animal waste and fertilizers entering the river system 64. Urban areas along the river further exacerbate the pollution problem due to inadequate sewage treatment 65. These combined pressures are causing ecological degradation, posing health risks to humans, and leading to a decline in biodiversity in the Cachoeira River.

In the Cerrado, agricultural expansion has notably affected nitrogen and carbon dynamics. In Western Bahia, this agricultural frontier has contributed to increased greenhouse gas emissions, particularly nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas 66. The rise in N2O is linked to intensive soil tilling, which disrupts soil structure, accelerates organic matter breakdown, and releases nitrates that lead to N2O emissions 67. In contrast, no-till systems have been shown to produce significantly lower N2O emissions in the Cerrado 68. Thus, adopting more sustainable practices, such as no-till farming or integrating crops with livestock and/or forests, could help mitigate the increasing emissions of N2O and reduce the region’s environmental impact 69.

Future Impacts in Bahia

Bahia has a rich history of land use and has been a major global exporter of agricultural products since the early 20th century 70. This legacy continues to shape both the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado, two of Bahia’s regions classified as biodiversity hotspots due to the increasing threats to their ecosystems 71.

The Atlantic Forest faces severe challenges from agricultural and livestock expansion. Monocultures like cocoa 72 and Eucalyptus sp. 73 have replaced much of the forest’s native vegetation, accelerating biodiversity loss. Although agroforests have been introduced to enhance biodiversity 74, their impact is limited by tax incentives driving deforestation for wood production 75. Additionally, nutrient runoff from agricultural activities continues to degrade soil and water quality, further endangering the forest 76. Protecting the Atlantic Forest will require the widespread adoption of sustainable land use practices to safeguard its ecological health and biodiversity.

Figure 13: Deforestation of the Altanic Forest for timber production is encoraged through tax incentives [^77]

Figure 13: Deforestation of the Altanic Forest for timber production is encoraged through tax incentives 77

Similarly, the Cerrado is under significant threat from the MATOPIBA agricultural frontier, particularly in western Bahia 78. Agribusiness expansion has driven ongoing deforestation and environmental degradation, with additional challenges posed by climate change, water stress, and soil carbon loss 79. Intensive farming practices have strained water resources, leading to irrigation conflicts in regions like the Rio Grande and Rio Branco 80. Sustainable approaches, such as no-till farming systems, could help reduce greenhouse gas emissions from soils and mitigate some of these pressures 81. Despite the launch of the Cerrado Manifesto in 2017, which gathered support from 163 major multinational corporations, no significant progress has been made in halting deforestation 82. Here’s more info on the Cerrado Manifesto.

The future of Bahia’s environment depends on balancing economic development with the preservation of these critical biomes. Policies that prioritize sustainability will be essential to ensuring the long-term health of the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado.

Figure 14: Continued agricultural practices in western Bahia, soy crop fields [^83]

Figure 14: Continued agricultural practices in western Bahia, soy crop fields 83

Bibliography

  1. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, “Historic Centre of Salvador de Bahia,” Unesco.org, 2010. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/309/↩︎

  2. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, “Historic Centre of Salvador de Bahia,” Unesco.org, 2010. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/309/↩︎

  3. IFAW, “What are biodiversity hotspots?,” IFAW, Apr. 09, 2024. https://www.ifaw.org/uk/journal/what-are-biodiversity-hotspots↩︎

  4. D. C. Passos, D. C. Lima, and D. M. Borges-Nojosa, “A new species of Tropidurus (Squamata, Tropiduridae) of the semitaeniatus group from a semiarid area in Northeastern Brazil,” Zootaxa, vol. 2930, no. 1, p. 60, Jun. 2011, doi: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.2930.1.5.↩︎

  5. E. de A. Ramos, F. M. Nuvoloni, and E. R. do N. Lopes, “Landscape Transformations and loss of Atlantic Forests: challenges for conservation,” Journal for Nature Conservation, vol. 66, p. 126152, Apr. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2022.126152.↩︎

  6. S. Brown, “A tale of two biomes as deforestation surges in Cerrado but wanes in Amazon,” Mongabay Environmental News, Aug. 23, 2023. https://news.mongabay.com/2023/08/a-tale-of-two-biomes-as-deforestation-surges-in-cerrado-but-wanes-in-amazon/↩︎

  7. NASA Earthdata, “LP DAAC - MCD12Q1,” lpdaac.usgs.gov, 2021. https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/products/mcd12q1v061/↩︎

  8. IBGE, “Index of /organizacao_do_territorio/malhas_territoriais/malhas_municipais/municipio_2020/Brasil/BR,” geoftp.ibge.gov.br, 2020. https://geoftp.ibge.gov.br/organizacao_do_territorio/malhas_territoriais/malhas_municipais/municipio_2020/Brasil/BR/↩︎

  9. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, “Historic Centre of Salvador de Bahia,” Unesco.org, 2010. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/309/↩︎

  10. M. Baud and K. Koonings, “A lavoura dos pobres: Tobacco Farming and the Development of Commercial Agriculture in Bahia, 1870–1930,” Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 287–329, May 1999, doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x99005295.↩︎

  11. M. Baud and K. Koonings, “A lavoura dos pobres: Tobacco Farming and the Development of Commercial Agriculture in Bahia, 1870–1930,” Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 287–329, May 1999, doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x99005295.↩︎

  12. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, “Historic Centre of Salvador de Bahia,” Unesco.org, 2010. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/309/↩︎

  13. M. Baud and K. Koonings, “A lavoura dos pobres: Tobacco Farming and the Development of Commercial Agriculture in Bahia, 1870–1930,” Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 287–329, May 1999, doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x99005295.↩︎

  14. M. Baud and K. Koonings, “A lavoura dos pobres: Tobacco Farming and the Development of Commercial Agriculture in Bahia, 1870–1930,” Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 287–329, May 1999, doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x99005295.↩︎

  15. M. Baud and K. Koonings, “A lavoura dos pobres: Tobacco Farming and the Development of Commercial Agriculture in Bahia, 1870–1930,” Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 287–329, May 1999, doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x99005295.↩︎

  16. M. Baud and K. Koonings, “A lavoura dos pobres: Tobacco Farming and the Development of Commercial Agriculture in Bahia, 1870–1930,” Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 287–329, May 1999, doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x99005295.↩︎

  17. bahia.ws, “History of sugar cane in the colonisation of Brazil,” Tourism and travel guide to Salvador, Bahia and the Brazilian Northeast, Jul. 24, 2023. https://www.bahia.ws/en/history-of-sugar-cane-in-the-colonisation-of-brazil/↩︎

  18. G. Schroth et al., “Conservation in tropical landscape mosaics: the case of the cacao landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1635–1654, Apr. 2011, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0052-x.↩︎

  19. G. Schroth et al., “Conservation in tropical landscape mosaics: the case of the cacao landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1635–1654, Apr. 2011, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0052-x.↩︎

  20. F. M. Pimenta, A. T. Speroto, M. H. Costa, and E. A. Dionizio, “Historical Changes in Land Use and Suitability for Future Agriculture Expansion in Western Bahia, Brazil,” Remote Sensing, vol. 13, no. 6, p. 1088, Mar. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13061088.↩︎

  21. J. C. D. M. Esquerdo et al., “Dinâmica da agricultura anual na região do Matopiba.,” Anais XVII Simpósio Brasileiro de Sensoriamento Remoto, pp. 4583–4588, Nov. 2015, Accessed: Nov. 19, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/item/133107/1/SBSR-Esquerdo-dinamica.pdf↩︎

  22. CBD, “Brazil - Country Profile,” www.cbd.int, 2024. https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile?country=br↩︎

  23. gov.br, “Mata Atlântica,” Ministério do Meio Ambiente e Mudança do Clima, 2021. https://www.gov.br/mma/pt-br/assuntos/biodiversidade-e-biomas/biomas-e-ecossistemas/biomas/mata-atlantica↩︎

  24. gov.br, “Mata Atlântica,” Ministério do Meio Ambiente e Mudança do Clima, 2021. https://www.gov.br/mma/pt-br/assuntos/biodiversidade-e-biomas/biomas-e-ecossistemas/biomas/mata-atlantica↩︎

  25. gov.br, “Mata Atlântica,” Ministério do Meio Ambiente e Mudança do Clima, 2021. https://www.gov.br/mma/pt-br/assuntos/biodiversidade-e-biomas/biomas-e-ecossistemas/biomas/mata-atlantica↩︎

  26. G. Schroth et al., “Conservation in tropical landscape mosaics: the case of the cacao landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1635–1654, Apr. 2011, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0052-x.↩︎

  27. gov.br, “Mata Atlântica,” Ministério do Meio Ambiente e Mudança do Clima, 2021. https://www.gov.br/mma/pt-br/assuntos/biodiversidade-e-biomas/biomas-e-ecossistemas/biomas/mata-atlantica↩︎

  28. G. Schroth et al., “Conservation in tropical landscape mosaics: the case of the cacao landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1635–1654, Apr. 2011, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0052-x.↩︎

  29. G. Schroth et al., “Conservation in tropical landscape mosaics: the case of the cacao landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1635–1654, Apr. 2011, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0052-x.↩︎

  30. G. Schroth et al., “Conservation in tropical landscape mosaics: the case of the cacao landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1635–1654, Apr. 2011, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0052-x.↩︎

  31. G. Schroth et al., “Conservation in tropical landscape mosaics: the case of the cacao landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1635–1654, Apr. 2011, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0052-x.↩︎

  32. National Tropical Botanical Garden, “National Tropical Botanical Garden | Theobroma cacao - Plant Detail - Meet The Plants,” National Tropical Botanical Garden, 2024. https://ntbg.org/database/plants/detail/theobroma-cacao↩︎

  33. G. Schroth et al., “Conservation in tropical landscape mosaics: the case of the cacao landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1635–1654, Apr. 2011, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0052-x.↩︎

  34. G. Schroth et al., “Conservation in tropical landscape mosaics: the case of the cacao landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1635–1654, Apr. 2011, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0052-x.↩︎

  35. G. R. Colli, C. R. Vieira, and J. C. Dianese, “Biodiversity and conservation of the Cerrado: recent advances and old challenges,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 29, no. 5, Mar. 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-020-01967-x.↩︎

  36. G. R. Colli, C. R. Vieira, and J. C. Dianese, “Biodiversity and conservation of the Cerrado: recent advances and old challenges,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 29, no. 5, Mar. 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-020-01967-x.↩︎

  37. G. R. Colli, C. R. Vieira, and J. C. Dianese, “Biodiversity and conservation of the Cerrado: recent advances and old challenges,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 29, no. 5, Mar. 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-020-01967-x.↩︎

  38. T. O. Assis, M. I. S. Escada, and S. Amaral, “Effects of Deforestation over the Cerrado Landscape: A Study in the Bahia Frontier,” Land, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 352, Apr. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/land10040352.↩︎

  39. T. O. Assis, M. I. S. Escada, and S. Amaral, “Effects of Deforestation over the Cerrado Landscape: A Study in the Bahia Frontier,” Land, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 352, Apr. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/land10040352.↩︎

  40. J. Hance, “Cerrado: Brazil’s tropical woodland,” WorldRainforests.com, Jul. 29, 2020. https://worldrainforests.com/cerrado/↩︎

  41. L. C. P. Dias, F. M. Pimenta, A. B. Santos, M. H. Costa, and R. J. Ladle, “Patterns of land use, extensification, and intensification of Brazilian agriculture,” Global Change Biology, vol. 22, no. 8, pp. 2887–2903, May 2016, doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13314.↩︎

  42. L. C. P. Dias, F. M. Pimenta, A. B. Santos, M. H. Costa, and R. J. Ladle, “Patterns of land use, extensification, and intensification of Brazilian agriculture,” Global Change Biology, vol. 22, no. 8, pp. 2887–2903, May 2016, doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13314.↩︎

  43. L. C. P. Dias, F. M. Pimenta, A. B. Santos, M. H. Costa, and R. J. Ladle, “Patterns of land use, extensification, and intensification of Brazilian agriculture,” Global Change Biology, vol. 22, no. 8, pp. 2887–2903, May 2016, doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13314.↩︎

  44. E. de A. Ramos, F. M. Nuvoloni, and E. R. do N. Lopes, “Landscape Transformations and loss of Atlantic Forests: challenges for conservation,” Journal for Nature Conservation, vol. 66, p. 126152, Apr. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2022.126152.↩︎

  45. E. de A. Ramos, F. M. Nuvoloni, and E. R. do N. Lopes, “Landscape Transformations and loss of Atlantic Forests: challenges for conservation,” Journal for Nature Conservation, vol. 66, p. 126152, Apr. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2022.126152.↩︎

  46. E. de A. Ramos, F. M. Nuvoloni, and E. R. do N. Lopes, “Landscape Transformations and loss of Atlantic Forests: challenges for conservation,” Journal for Nature Conservation, vol. 66, p. 126152, Apr. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2022.126152.↩︎

  47. E. de A. Ramos, F. M. Nuvoloni, and E. R. do N. Lopes, “Landscape Transformations and loss of Atlantic Forests: challenges for conservation,” Journal for Nature Conservation, vol. 66, p. 126152, Apr. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2022.126152.↩︎

  48. Ferso ESG, “Deforestation in the Atlantic Forest is the second highest in the last six years - Ferso ESG,” Ferso ESG, Nov. 23, 2023. ,https://fersoesg.com/en/desmatamento-na-mata-atlantica-e-o-segundo-maior-dos-ultimos-seis-anos/↩︎

  49. T. O. Assis, M. I. S. Escada, and S. Amaral, “Effects of Deforestation over the Cerrado Landscape: A Study in the Bahia Frontier,” Land, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 352, Apr. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/land10040352.↩︎

  50. T. O. Assis, M. I. S. Escada, and S. Amaral, “Effects of Deforestation over the Cerrado Landscape: A Study in the Bahia Frontier,” Land, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 352, Apr. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/land10040352.↩︎

  51. T. O. Assis, M. I. S. Escada, and S. Amaral, “Effects of Deforestation over the Cerrado Landscape: A Study in the Bahia Frontier,” Land, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 352, Apr. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/land10040352.↩︎

  52. S. Brown, “A tale of two biomes as deforestation surges in Cerrado but wanes in Amazon,” Mongabay Environmental News, Aug. 23, 2023. https://news.mongabay.com/2023/08/a-tale-of-two-biomes-as-deforestation-surges-in-cerrado-but-wanes-in-amazon/↩︎

  53. J. A. Marengo, J. C. Jimenez, J.-C. Espinoza, A. P. Cunha, and L. E. O. Aragão, “Increased climate pressure on the agricultural frontier in the Eastern Amazonia–Cerrado transition zone,” Scientific Reports, vol. 12, no. 1, Jan. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-04241-4.↩︎

  54. F. M. Pimenta, A. T. Speroto, M. H. Costa, and E. A. Dionizio, “Historical Changes in Land Use and Suitability for Future Agriculture Expansion in Western Bahia, Brazil,” Remote Sensing, vol. 13, no. 6, p. 1088, Mar. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13061088.↩︎

  55. F. M. Pimenta, A. T. Speroto, M. H. Costa, and E. A. Dionizio, “Historical Changes in Land Use and Suitability for Future Agriculture Expansion in Western Bahia, Brazil,” Remote Sensing, vol. 13, no. 6, p. 1088, Mar. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13061088.↩︎

  56. F. M. Pimenta, A. T. Speroto, M. H. Costa, and E. A. Dionizio, “Historical Changes in Land Use and Suitability for Future Agriculture Expansion in Western Bahia, Brazil,” Remote Sensing, vol. 13, no. 6, p. 1088, Mar. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13061088.↩︎

  57. F. M. Pimenta, A. T. Speroto, M. H. Costa, and E. A. Dionizio, “Historical Changes in Land Use and Suitability for Future Agriculture Expansion in Western Bahia, Brazil,” Remote Sensing, vol. 13, no. 6, p. 1088, Mar. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13061088.↩︎

  58. F. M. Pimenta, A. T. Speroto, M. H. Costa, and E. A. Dionizio, “Historical Changes in Land Use and Suitability for Future Agriculture Expansion in Western Bahia, Brazil,” Remote Sensing, vol. 13, no. 6, p. 1088, Mar. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13061088.↩︎

  59. F. M. Pimenta, A. T. Speroto, M. H. Costa, and E. A. Dionizio, “Historical Changes in Land Use and Suitability for Future Agriculture Expansion in Western Bahia, Brazil,” Remote Sensing, vol. 13, no. 6, p. 1088, Mar. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13061088.↩︎

  60. L. Caramel, “Soy traders failing to monitor indirect suppliers in Brazil’s Cerrado,” Dialogue Earth, Jun. 09, 2022. https://dialogue.earth/en/forests/54644-cerrado-soy-traders-indirect-suppliers-in-brazil/↩︎

  61. M. Lucio, S. Santos, and D. Silva, “Hydrochemistry of Cachoeira River (Bahia State, Brazil),” Acta Limnologica Brasiliensia, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 181–192, Oct. 2012, doi: https://doi.org/10.1590/s2179-975x2012005000037.↩︎

  62. M. Lucio, S. Santos, and D. Silva, “Hydrochemistry of Cachoeira River (Bahia State, Brazil),” Acta Limnologica Brasiliensia, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 181–192, Oct. 2012, doi: https://doi.org/10.1590/s2179-975x2012005000037.↩︎

  63. M. Lucio, S. Santos, and D. Silva, “Hydrochemistry of Cachoeira River (Bahia State, Brazil),” Acta Limnologica Brasiliensia, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 181–192, Oct. 2012, doi: https://doi.org/10.1590/s2179-975x2012005000037.↩︎

  64. M. Lucio, S. Santos, and D. Silva, “Hydrochemistry of Cachoeira River (Bahia State, Brazil),” Acta Limnologica Brasiliensia, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 181–192, Oct. 2012, doi: https://doi.org/10.1590/s2179-975x2012005000037.↩︎

  65. M. Lucio, S. Santos, and D. Silva, “Hydrochemistry of Cachoeira River (Bahia State, Brazil),” Acta Limnologica Brasiliensia, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 181–192, Oct. 2012, doi: https://doi.org/10.1590/s2179-975x2012005000037.↩︎

  66. T. Sousa, M. Ramos, C. Figueiredo, and A. Carvalho, “N2O emissions from soils under different uses in the Brazilian Cerrado - A review,” Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo, vol. 45, no. 45, Jan. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.36783/18069657rbcs20210093.↩︎

  67. T. Sousa, M. Ramos, C. Figueiredo, and A. Carvalho, “N2O emissions from soils under different uses in the Brazilian Cerrado - A review,” Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo, vol. 45, no. 45, Jan. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.36783/18069657rbcs20210093.↩︎

  68. T. Sousa, M. Ramos, C. Figueiredo, and A. Carvalho, “N2O emissions from soils under different uses in the Brazilian Cerrado - A review,” Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo, vol. 45, no. 45, Jan. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.36783/18069657rbcs20210093.↩︎

  69. T. Sousa, M. Ramos, C. Figueiredo, and A. Carvalho, “N2O emissions from soils under different uses in the Brazilian Cerrado - A review,” Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo, vol. 45, no. 45, Jan. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.36783/18069657rbcs20210093.↩︎

  70. G. Schroth et al., “Conservation in tropical landscape mosaics: the case of the cacao landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1635–1654, Apr. 2011, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0052-x.↩︎

  71. IFAW, “What are biodiversity hotspots?,” IFAW, Apr. 09, 2024. https://www.ifaw.org/uk/journal/what-are-biodiversity-hotspots↩︎

  72. G. Schroth et al., “Conservation in tropical landscape mosaics: the case of the cacao landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1635–1654, Apr. 2011, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0052-x.↩︎

  73. E. de A. Ramos, F. M. Nuvoloni, and E. R. do N. Lopes, “Landscape Transformations and loss of Atlantic Forests: challenges for conservation,” Journal for Nature Conservation, vol. 66, p. 126152, Apr. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2022.126152.↩︎

  74. G. Schroth et al., “Conservation in tropical landscape mosaics: the case of the cacao landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1635–1654, Apr. 2011, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0052-x.↩︎

  75. E. de A. Ramos, F. M. Nuvoloni, and E. R. do N. Lopes, “Landscape Transformations and loss of Atlantic Forests: challenges for conservation,” Journal for Nature Conservation, vol. 66, p. 126152, Apr. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2022.126152.↩︎

  76. M. Lucio, S. Santos, and D. Silva, “Hydrochemistry of Cachoeira River (Bahia State, Brazil),” Acta Limnologica Brasiliensia, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 181–192, Oct. 2012, doi: https://doi.org/10.1590/s2179-975x2012005000037.↩︎

  77. E. Oliveira, “As large areas of Brazil’s Atlantic Forest regenerate, the gains don’t last,” Mongabay Environmental News, May 30, 2022. https://news.mongabay.com/2022/05/as-large-areas-of-brazils-atlantic-forest-regenerate-the-gains-dont-last/↩︎

  78. T. O. Assis, M. I. S. Escada, and S. Amaral, “Effects of Deforestation over the Cerrado Landscape: A Study in the Bahia Frontier,” Land, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 352, Apr. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/land10040352.↩︎

  79. F. M. Pimenta, A. T. Speroto, M. H. Costa, and E. A. Dionizio, “Historical Changes in Land Use and Suitability for Future Agriculture Expansion in Western Bahia, Brazil,” Remote Sensing, vol. 13, no. 6, p. 1088, Mar. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13061088.↩︎

  80. F. M. Pimenta, A. T. Speroto, M. H. Costa, and E. A. Dionizio, “Historical Changes in Land Use and Suitability for Future Agriculture Expansion in Western Bahia, Brazil,” Remote Sensing, vol. 13, no. 6, p. 1088, Mar. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13061088.↩︎

  81. T. Sousa, M. Ramos, C. Figueiredo, and A. Carvalho, “N2O emissions from soils under different uses in the Brazilian Cerrado - A review,” Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo, vol. 45, no. 45, Jan. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.36783/18069657rbcs20210093.↩︎

  82. L. Caramel, “Soy traders failing to monitor indirect suppliers in Brazil’s Cerrado,” Dialogue Earth, Jun. 09, 2022. https://dialogue.earth/en/forests/54644-cerrado-soy-traders-indirect-suppliers-in-brazil/↩︎

  83. L. Caramel, “Soy traders failing to monitor indirect suppliers in Brazil’s Cerrado,” Dialogue Earth, Jun. 09, 2022. https://dialogue.earth/en/forests/54644-cerrado-soy-traders-indirect-suppliers-in-brazil/↩︎