Semiotics

Introduction

Signs vs people
Not an easy term to define
- Study of signs
- What is a sign?
  - Regular signs vs words

Key theorists

Saussure, Pierce, Morris
Barthes, Greimas, Eco, Kristeva
Investigating the nature of signs & classifying and interpreting sign systems & studying how people use them

More definitions

Umberto Eco: semiotics is concerned with everything that can be taken as a sign.
Semiotics involves the study not only of what we refer to as ‘signs’ in everyday speech, but of anything which ‘stands for’ something else: signs take the form of words, images, sounds, gestures and objects.
Contemporary semioticians study signs not in isolation but as part of semiotic ‘sign systems’ (such as a medium or genre).
How meanings are made, construction and maintenance of reality…

Coverage of semiotics

semantics: the relationship of signs to what they stand for;
syntactics (or syntax): the formal or structural relations between signs;
pragmatics: the relation of signs to interpreters (Morris 1938, 6-7).

What is a text for semiotics?

A ‘text’ can exist in any medium and may be verbal, non-verbal, or both, despite the logocentric bias of this distinction.
The term text usually refers to a message which has been recorded in some way (e.g. writing, audio- and video-recording) so that it is physically independent of its sender or receiver.
A text is an assemblage of signs (such as words, images, sounds and/or gestures) constructed (and interpreted) with reference to the conventions associated with a genre and in a particular medium of communication.

What is a medium?

Mass media: radio, television, newspapers, magazines, books, photographs, films and records
Media of interpersonal communication: telephone, letter, fax, e-mail, video-conferencing, computer-based chat systems
The environment that the message is being delivered
Do we use medium to transfer our message, or medium use/reshape us?

Fairclough on use of media

The press uses a visual channel, its language is written, and it draws upon technologies of photographic reproduction, graphic design, and printing. Radio, by contrast, uses an oral channel and spoken language and relies on technologies of sound recording and broadcasting, whilst television combines technologies of sound- and image-recording and broadcasting… Radio begins to allow individuality and personality to be foregrounded through transmitting individual qualities of voice. Television takes the process much further by making people visually available, and not in the frozen modality of newspaper photographs, but in movement and action. (Fairclough 1995, 38-9)

Semiotic’s rivals

Other approaches to textual analysis: rhetorical analysis, discourse analysis and ‘content analysis’.
In the field of media and communication studies content analysis is a prominent rival to semiotics as a method of textual analysis.
Content analysis involves a quantitative approach to the analysis of the manifest ‘content’ of media texts, semiotics seeks to analyse media texts as structured wholes and investigates latent, connotative meanings.

Is semiotics a scince?

No widely-agreed theoretical assumptions, models or empirical methodologies.
Semiotic methods are not universally accepted: socially-oriented theorists have criticized their exclusive focus on structure, and no alternative methodologies have as yet been widely adopted.
But there is at present little sense of semiotics as a unified enterprise building on cumulative research findings.
There is considerable variation as to what semiotics involves
Even with the most basic semiotic terms there are multiple definitions

Media and semiotics

Semioticians commonly refer to films, television and radio programmes, advertising posters and so on as ‘texts’, and to ‘reading television’ (Fiske and Hartley 1978).
Media such as television and film are regarded by some semioticians as being in some respects like ‘languages’. The issue tends to revolve around whether film is closer to what we treat as ‘reality’ in the everyday world of our own experience or whether it has more in common with a symbolic system like writing.

Saussure’s model

The distinction between langue (language) and parole (speech)
- Langue refers to the system of rules and conventions which is independent of, and pre-exists, individual users; parole refers to its use in particular instances. Saussure focused on langue rather than parole.
In a semiotic system such as cinema, ‘any specific film is the speech of that underlying system of cinema language’ (Langholz Leymore 1975, 3)

Why to study semiotics?

Semiotics is important because it can help us not to take ‘reality’ for granted as something having a purely objective existence which is independent of human interpretation.
Studying semiotics can assist us to become more aware of reality as a construction and of the roles played by ourselves and others in constructing it.
Meaning is not ‘transmitted’ to us - we actively create it according to a complex interplay of codes or conventions of which we are normally unaware. Becoming aware of such codes is both inherently fascinating and intellectually empowering.

Semiotic approaches

It has often been assumed that the task of media is simply to tell ‘the truth’ about what it reports. Semiotics, however, does not assume that the media work as simple channels of communication, as ‘windows on the world’.
Instead they are seen as actually structuring the very realities which they seem to ‘describe’ or ‘stand in for’
Semiotics and accompanying theories from structuralism asked radical questions about how meanings are constructed in and by different languages and cultures.

Signs

We make meanings through interpretation of ‘signs’: ‘We think only in signs’ (Peirce 1931-58, 2.302)
Signs take the form of words, images, sounds, odours, flavours, acts or objects, but such things have no intrinsic meaning and become signs only when we invest them with meaning: ‘Nothing is a sign unless it is interpreted as a sign’ (Peirce 1931-58, 2.172)
Anything can be a sign as long as someone interprets it as ‘signifying’ something - referring to or standing for something other than itself.

Models of signs

Saussure offered a ‘dyadic’ or two-part model of the sign.
He defined a sign as being composed of: a ‘signifier’ (signifiant) - the form which the sign takes; and the ‘signified’ (signifié) - the concept it represents.
The sign is the whole that results from the association of the signifier with the signified (Saussure 1983, 67; Saussure 1974, 67).

A sign

Description

a signifier: the word open;
a signified concept: that the shop is open for business.

The Saussureian sign

A sign must have both a signifier and a signified.
You cannot have a totally meaningless signifier or a completely formless signified (Saussure 1983, 101; Saussure 1974, 102-103)
A sign is a recognizable combination of a signifier with a particular signified.
The signifier is the material (or physical) form of the sign - it is something which can be seen, heard, touched, smelt or tasted.
Saussure was focusing on the linguistic sign (such as a word)

The Saussureian sign

The distinction between signifier and signified has sometimes been equated to the familiar dualism of ‘form and content’.
Saussure argued that signs only make sense as part of a formal, generalized and abstract system: words in laguage

The sign by Peirce

Pierce created his own model of the sign, of ‘semiotic’ and of the taxonomies of signs. In contrast to Saussure’s model of the sign in the form of a ‘self-contained dyad’
Peirce offered a triadic model
- The Representamen: the form which the sign takes (not necessarily material);
- An Interpretant: not an interpreter but rather the sense made of the sign;
- An Object: to which the sign refers.

The sign by Peirce

Representamen: is something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity
Interpretant: The sign stands for something, its object. It stands for that object, not in all respects, but in reference to a sort of idea.
The interaction between the representamen, the object and the interpretant is referred to by Peirce as ‘semiosis’

The sign by Peirce

the traffic light sign for ‘stop’ would consist of: a red light facing traffic at an intersection (the representamen); vehicles halting (the object) and the idea that a red light indicates that vehicles must stop (the interpretant).

The sign by Peirce

The representamen is similar in meaning to Saussure’s signifier whilst the interpretant is similar in meaning to the signified
However, the interpretant has a quality unlike that of the signified: it is itself a sign in the mind of the interpreter
Umberto Eco uses the phrase ‘unlimited semiosis’ to refer to the way in which this could lead (as Peirce was well aware) to a series of successive interpretants (potentially) ad infinitum
Peirce’s model bases on dialogical thought. It stems in part from Peirce’s emphasis on ‘semiosis’ as a process which is in distinct contrast to Saussure’s synchronic emphasis on structure

Three Sign Modes:Symbolic Signs

Symbolic signs are based on arbitrary or conventional relationships between the signifier (form) and the signified (meaning).
These signs have no inherent resemblance or physical connection to the object they represent.
They rely on shared cultural conventions and must be learned within a social context.

Three Sign Modes:Symbolic Signs

Examples of symbolic signs include:
- Language: Words are symbolic because the connection between a word (e.g., “tree”) and the object it refers to is arbitrary.
- Numbers: Numerical representations are arbitrary symbols that carry meaning through established conventions.
- Flags: National flags symbolize countries based on societal agreements, not any inherent resemblance to the country itself.

Three Sign Modes: Iconic Signs

Iconic signs are motivated by resemblance; they look or sound like what they represent.
The relationship between the signifier and signified is based on perceived similarity.
Iconic signs do not entirely escape convention because, even if a sign resembles its object, its use still depends on cultural understanding.

Three Sign Modes: Iconic Signs

Examples of iconic signs include:
- Portraits: A drawing or photograph resembles the person it represents.
- Metaphors: Linguistic metaphors often rely on resemblance between two ideas.
- Sound effects: Sounds like a dog barking in a movie or on the radio are iconic because they resemble the actual sounds in real life.
Although icons seem more “natural” than symbols, they are still culturally interpreted. For example, cartoons and diagrams are iconic but require learning and interpretation within a given culture.

Three Sign Modes: Indexical Sign

Indexical signs have a direct connection to the object they signify. The relationship is based on causality or proximity, not resemblance or convention.
They often involve a physical or factual connection between the sign and its object.

Three Sign Modes: Indexical Sign

Examples of indexical signs include:
- Smoke: Indicates fire because there is a direct physical connection between the two.
- Medical symptoms: A rash or fever can be an indexical sign of illness.
- Footprints: Footprints in the sand are indexical because they are a direct trace of a person walking.
Some forms of photography are both iconic (resembling the object) and indexical (causally connected to the object through light and exposure).

Three Sign Modes: Examples

The Bilkent University logo serves as a symbolic sign. The logo features the university’s name, along with its founding year and a crest-like design.
Rationale: This logo is symbolic because there is no inherent or natural connection between the visual elements (shapes, colors, text) and the concept of “Bilkent University.” The meaning is entirely based on cultural convention—the community understands that the crest and accompanying text represent Bilkent University because it has been designated to do so.

Three Sign Modes: Examples

A photograph of Bilkent University’s campus or its iconic buildings (e.g., the Rectorate building, Library, or Amphitheater) would serve as an iconic sign.
Rationale: Iconic signs resemble their objects. In this case, the photograph visually resembles the actual physical space of Bilkent University. People who are familiar with the campus can identify it immediately based on the photograph’s resemblance to the real-world buildings and landscapes.

Three Sign Modes: Examples

A Bilkent student ID card or university diploma acts as an indexical sign of one’s association with Bilkent University.
Rationale: Indexical signs are directly connected to their objects in a causal or factual way. The student ID card or diploma is directly linked to the individual’s status as a student or graduate of the university. It points to or indicates a person’s affiliation with Bilkent University based on their enrollment or graduation, rather than through visual resemblance.

Mixed sign types:

Signs can combine symbolic, iconic, and indexical elements.
Example: A map is symbolic (conventional symbols), iconic (relation between parts), and indexical (pointing to locations).

Denotation, Connotation, and Myth

Denotation:
- Refers to the literal, commonsense meaning of a sign.
- For example, in language, denotation is what a dictionary provides as a word’s meaning.
- Denotation is often described as a “digital code,” and it tends to involve broader cultural consensus.

Denotation, Connotation, and Myth

Connotation:
- Refers to the socio-cultural and personal associations (e.g., emotional, ideological).
- Connotation is linked to factors like class, gender, age, and ethnicity.
- Signs are typically more open to interpretation in their connotations than in their denotations.
- Roland Barthes argued that connotation produces the illusion of denotation, making language appear transparent and universal.

Denotation, Connotation, and Myth

Interplay Between Denotation and Connotation:
- The two are difficult to separate in practice, as no sign is purely denotative.
- Cultural codes influence connotation, and meanings are often shared within cultures (intersubjective).
- There is no neutral or purely objective description of meaning, as evaluation always influences interpretation.

Denotation, Connotation, and Myth

Myth:
- According to Barthes, myths are dominant ideologies of a given time.
- Myths use denotation and connotation to convey ideological meanings, making cultural values seem “natural” and self-evident.
- Myth functions by turning history into “nature,” simplifying complex human acts into seemingly obvious truths.

Orders of Signification

First Order (Denotation): Represents the primary, literal meaning (e.g., a photograph of Marilyn Monroe).
Second Order (Connotation): Expressive values attached to the sign (e.g., Marilyn Monroe’s glamour and beauty or her personal struggles).
Third Order (Myth/Ideology): Reflects cultural concepts and worldviews (e.g., Hollywood’s glamorization of stars and its exploitation).

Cultural Codes and Naturalization:

Cultural codes organize connotations and are built around key oppositions (e.g., male/female, strong/weak).
Myths naturalize these cultural and historical values, making them appear normal and self-evident.

Roland Barthes’ Example (Panzani Advertisement):

The advertisement illustrates multiple levels of meaning:
- Linguistic message: The brand name “Panzani” connotes “Italianicity.”
- Image: Fresh produce spilling from a bag implies freshness and a return from the market.
- Connotative signs: The colors and food items evoke associations with Italy and domestic life.
- Aesthetic sign: The composition evokes traditional “still life” paintings, adding cultural weight to the image.

Denotation, Connotation, and Myth

Stages in a Semiotic Analysis:

Define Your Object of Analysis:
- Choose a specific text or image based on your hypothesis.
- Example: Compare fashion spreads for younger vs. older women to examine themes of sex and sexuality.
Gather the Texts:
- Collect all relevant materials for analysis (e.g., magazine issues, TV programs, ads).
- The size of your sample depends on the depth of your research.
Describe the Texts:
- Identify and describe all elements of the image, focusing on denotation (literal meanings) first.
- Pay attention to settings, poses, and the relationship between text and image.

Stages in a Semiotic Analysis:

Interpret the Texts:
- Discuss the connotations and implications of each sign.
- Analyze how the visual and linguistic elements work together or separately to create meaning.
Draw Out the Cultural Codes:
- Determine the cultural knowledge required to understand the text.
- How do the images rely on cultural codes to convey specific meanings?
Make Generalizations:
- Compare how different codes are used within your sample and categorize them.
- Ask: How has meaning been constructed in this sample?
Make Conclusions:
- Evaluate whether the analysis supports or refutes your hypothesis.
- Consider unexpected codes or conventions that emerge during analysis.