R

Link: http://www.r-project.org

To download R visit https://cloud.r-project.org

9 / 44
## [1] 0.2045455
0.6 * 0.4 + 0.3 * 0.6
## [1] 0.42
log(0.6 * 0.4 + 0.3 * 0.6)
## [1] -0.8675006

Introduction: https://cran.r-project.org/doc/manuals/r-release/R-intro.pdf

Data

Data in R

data()
?airquality
## starting httpd help server ... done
head(airquality)
##   Ozone Solar.R Wind Temp Month Day
## 1    41     190  7.4   67     5   1
## 2    36     118  8.0   72     5   2
## 3    12     149 12.6   74     5   3
## 4    18     313 11.5   62     5   4
## 5    NA      NA 14.3   56     5   5
## 6    28      NA 14.9   66     5   6
tail(airquality)
##     Ozone Solar.R Wind Temp Month Day
## 148    14      20 16.6   63     9  25
## 149    30     193  6.9   70     9  26
## 150    NA     145 13.2   77     9  27
## 151    14     191 14.3   75     9  28
## 152    18     131  8.0   76     9  29
## 153    20     223 11.5   68     9  30
head(airquality, n = 10)
##    Ozone Solar.R Wind Temp Month Day
## 1     41     190  7.4   67     5   1
## 2     36     118  8.0   72     5   2
## 3     12     149 12.6   74     5   3
## 4     18     313 11.5   62     5   4
## 5     NA      NA 14.3   56     5   5
## 6     28      NA 14.9   66     5   6
## 7     23     299  8.6   65     5   7
## 8     19      99 13.8   59     5   8
## 9      8      19 20.1   61     5   9
## 10    NA     194  8.6   69     5  10
airquality[148,4]
## [1] 63
airquality$Temp[148]
## [1] 63
airquality[148,]
##     Ozone Solar.R Wind Temp Month Day
## 148    14      20 16.6   63     9  25
airquality[,c(1,4)]
##     Ozone Temp
## 1      41   67
## 2      36   72
## 3      12   74
## 4      18   62
## 5      NA   56
## 6      28   66
## 7      23   65
## 8      19   59
## 9       8   61
## 10     NA   69
## 11      7   74
## 12     16   69
## 13     11   66
## 14     14   68
## 15     18   58
## 16     14   64
## 17     34   66
## 18      6   57
## 19     30   68
## 20     11   62
## 21      1   59
## 22     11   73
## 23      4   61
## 24     32   61
## 25     NA   57
## 26     NA   58
## 27     NA   57
## 28     23   67
## 29     45   81
## 30    115   79
## 31     37   76
## 32     NA   78
## 33     NA   74
## 34     NA   67
## 35     NA   84
## 36     NA   85
## 37     NA   79
## 38     29   82
## 39     NA   87
## 40     71   90
## 41     39   87
## 42     NA   93
## 43     NA   92
## 44     23   82
## 45     NA   80
## 46     NA   79
## 47     21   77
## 48     37   72
## 49     20   65
## 50     12   73
## 51     13   76
## 52     NA   77
## 53     NA   76
## 54     NA   76
## 55     NA   76
## 56     NA   75
## 57     NA   78
## 58     NA   73
## 59     NA   80
## 60     NA   77
## 61     NA   83
## 62    135   84
## 63     49   85
## 64     32   81
## 65     NA   84
## 66     64   83
## 67     40   83
## 68     77   88
## 69     97   92
## 70     97   92
## 71     85   89
## 72     NA   82
## 73     10   73
## 74     27   81
## 75     NA   91
## 76      7   80
## 77     48   81
## 78     35   82
## 79     61   84
## 80     79   87
## 81     63   85
## 82     16   74
## 83     NA   81
## 84     NA   82
## 85     80   86
## 86    108   85
## 87     20   82
## 88     52   86
## 89     82   88
## 90     50   86
## 91     64   83
## 92     59   81
## 93     39   81
## 94      9   81
## 95     16   82
## 96     78   86
## 97     35   85
## 98     66   87
## 99    122   89
## 100    89   90
## 101   110   90
## 102    NA   92
## 103    NA   86
## 104    44   86
## 105    28   82
## 106    65   80
## 107    NA   79
## 108    22   77
## 109    59   79
## 110    23   76
## 111    31   78
## 112    44   78
## 113    21   77
## 114     9   72
## 115    NA   75
## 116    45   79
## 117   168   81
## 118    73   86
## 119    NA   88
## 120    76   97
## 121   118   94
## 122    84   96
## 123    85   94
## 124    96   91
## 125    78   92
## 126    73   93
## 127    91   93
## 128    47   87
## 129    32   84
## 130    20   80
## 131    23   78
## 132    21   75
## 133    24   73
## 134    44   81
## 135    21   76
## 136    28   77
## 137     9   71
## 138    13   71
## 139    46   78
## 140    18   67
## 141    13   76
## 142    24   68
## 143    16   82
## 144    13   64
## 145    23   71
## 146    36   81
## 147     7   69
## 148    14   63
## 149    30   70
## 150    NA   77
## 151    14   75
## 152    18   76
## 153    20   68
summary(airquality$Temp)
##    Min. 1st Qu.  Median    Mean 3rd Qu.    Max. 
##   56.00   72.00   79.00   77.88   85.00   97.00
hist(airquality$Temp)

plot(airquality$Temp)

plot(airquality$Ozone, airquality$Temp)

plot(airquality)

Box plot

P&S

Probability – the study of models for (random) experiments when the model is fully known

Statistics – to infer about the unknown aspects of the model based on observed outcomes of the experiment (when the model is not fully known)

Let us start with probability distributions!

xn = c(1,2,2,3,1,2,3,3,1,2,3,3,1)

factorxn = factor(xn)
factorxn
##  [1] 1 2 2 3 1 2 3 3 1 2 3 3 1
## Levels: 1 2 3
mean(xn)
## [1] 2.076923
mean(factorxn)
## Warning in mean.default(factorxn): argument is not numeric or logical:
## returning NA
## [1] NA
xc = c("June", "July", "August", "September", "August", "July","July","August" )

factorxc = factor(xc)

months = factor(xc,levels=c("Garbage", "January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"), ordered=TRUE)

table(months)
## months
##   Garbage   January  February     March     April       May      June      July 
##         0         0         0         0         0         0         1         3 
##    August September   October  November  December 
##         3         1         0         0         0
table(factor(months))
## 
##      June      July    August September 
##         1         3         3         1