| Australian Citizen | Naturalised | Permanent Visa | Temporary Visa | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Primary | Secondary | Primary | Secondary | Primary | Secondary | ||
| Employed (%) | 80.6% | 81.3% | 75.8% | 84.2% | 64.0% | 73.8% | 61.6% |
| NSC core competencies score (mean) | 5.91 | 5.97 | 5.79 | 5.99 | 5.57 | 5.62 | 5.24 |
| Wages and salaries ($, median) | $55,134 | $59,928 | $46,428 | $57,002 | $37,227 | $47,310 | $35,222 |
| N (all) | 434,037 | 32,337 | 13,382 | 20,848 | 7,225 | 6,957 | 1,547 |
| N (employed only) | 349,865 | 26,274 | 10,150 | 17,555 | 4,622 | 5,136 | 953 |
Migrants Skills Mismatch
Report compiled with sa-data
Introduction
The SA Government Department for Industry, Innovation and Science (DIIS) has provided grant funding to the Australian Industrial Transformation Institute (AITI) at Flinders University in collaboration with Dr George Tan, Department of Geography, Environment and Population (School of Sciences) at The University of Adelaide to analyse and describe migrant skills mismatch in the Australian labour market, using the Person Level Integrated Data Asset (PLIDA) data.
Analyses were conducted separately for migrants with permanent and temporary visas, and for the primary and secondary applicants.
Data
AITI obtained access to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) DataLab and, within the lab, modules contained within PLIDA.
The modules requested were:
ABS Census of Population and Housing 2011, 2016, and 2021;
Australian Taxation Office (ATO) Client Register (2006-), Income Tax Return (all available reference periods), Payment Summary (all available reference periods)
Department of Home Affairs (DoHA) Migrant data (demographics, travellers, visa, permanent migrants: from 2000-current).
Defining skills (mis)match
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has defined skills mismatch as “a discrepancy between the skills that are sought by employers and the skills that are possessed by individuals” (International Labour Organization 2020). Alternatively, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in a recent report defined skills mismatch as “a situation where an employee feels that his or her skill level does not match the level required for the job, either because it is too high or because he or she feels that it is too low in relation to the needs of the job” (Brun-Schammé and Rey 2021). Alternative definitions are summarised, for instance, by Flisi et al. (2016).
In common, these definitions require information about the skills of workers or job seekers, such as their levels of numeracy or literacy, but also team working or project management capabilities, which employers may deem important.
Neither information about migrants’ and citizens’ skills, nor information about employers’ expectation of skills is contained in the PLIDA dataset. Alternative measures of mismatch are therefore required.
In this study, skills (mis)match was measured in terms of three indicators:
labour market status, distinguishing between employed, or not employed;
occupational status; and
income from wages and salary.
Labour market status comparisons determine differences in the likelihood of migrants and citizens obtaining employment. However, it is important to bear in mind that a narrow focus on employment or unemployment rates can obfuscate the underemployment or the underutilisation of skills Ho and Alcorso (2004). Likelihood differentials may be indicative of demand side constraints, such as employers’ preference for employees with locally acquired work experience and Australian qualifications. They may also result from differences in skills or educational attainment between migrants and Australian citizens. To the extent that they do, labour market status differentials indicate a skill (mis)match, which adds complexity tohow the literature traditionally conceptualises barriers to employment.
More immediate indicators of skills (mis)match observe migrants’ and citizens’ experience in employment. Occupational status information defines the skills typically required for performing tasks associated with an occupation. It is here used in lieu of an indicator defining employees’ skills, which is not available in the data. In addition, we use income from wages and salary to compare the ‘market value’ assigned to migrant labour.
In each instance, the experience of migrants is presented in comparison to that of Australian citizens, reporting both, nominal statistics and statistics controlling for socio-demographic differences. The latter include highest educational qualification, but also age and sex. Australian citizens are thus used as a benchmark for estimating migrants’ skills (mis)match. Australian citizens may, of course, themselves be mismatched in terms of their skills, although this cannot be established with the data available.
The analysis presented here therefore ought to be read as examining the extent to which migrants are similarly or differently (mis)matched in terms of skills compared with Australian citizens, all else equal. That is, compared with Australian citizens, migrants
are more, less or similarly likely to be employed;
work in occupations of higher, lower or similar status; or
earn higher, lower or similar wages and salaries
Measuring occupational status
The measure of occupational status used in this study the National Skills Commission’s (NSC, now renamed Jobs and Skills Australia - JSA) core competencies measure. As part of its Australian Skills Classification 1.0, the NSC has identified ten core competencies that are shared across occupations (National Skills Commission, 2020). They are:
reading;
learning;
problem solving;
oral communication;
planning and organising;
initiative and innovation;
numeracy;
digital engagement;
teamwork; and
writing.
For each unit group of occupations1 as defined by the Australian and New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations (ANZSCO), the NSC has scored each core competency on the level of knowledge and capability (i.e., competency) required to fulfil the tasks associated with an occupation; the levels ranging from 1 (basic) to 10 (high). For this study, we averaged the scores for each occupation and appended them to the 2016 Census and ATO datasets. The scores estimate across the working population in this study ranged from a minimum of 3.8 to a maximum of 7.6.
Based on this measure of skill, the occupations requiring the highest level of skill are typically in the Manager and Professional categories, including Chief Executives and Managing Directors, Policy and Planning Managers, and Surgeons. The occupations with the lowest skill requirements typically fall into the broad categories of Machinery Operators and Drivers, and Labourers, including Crop Farm Workers, and Textile and Footwear Production Machine Operators.
This measure allowed a comparison of occupations held by migrants and citizens based on their typically required competencies. In regression analyses, this was done whilst controlling for socio-demographic priors.
Data preparation
The ABS 2016 Census of Population and Housing was linked to the DoHA Migrant dataset, containing information about visa applications and visa approvals. Salaries and wages by income year were also appended, using the ATO data.
The Census of Population and Housing of the year 2016 was chosen because the analysis required forward-looking data to observe change over time. This was made possible by appending ATO data for subsequent (tax) years to the 2016 Census dataset.
Since forward-looking data was only available for fourfinancial years following the 2016 Census (i.e., up to the 2019/20 financial year), the starting point for this study, information about migrants’ and citizens’ occupations obtained from ATO data going back to 2011/12 is also examined to provide an extended longitudinal perspective. This uses nominal data, i.e., it does not control for potentially confounding variables.
It should be noted that DoHA visa application and visa approval data cannot be linked conclusively due to the transactional nature of the data sets. For this reason, the visa approval data has been adjusted to only consider the most recent visa granted to an individual prior to the 2016 Census.
Visa subclass aggregation
As part of the data preparation, visa subclasses identified in the merged dataset were aggregated into distinct groups of permanent and temporary visa categories (see Table 6).
Missing or non-matching cases
In the course of merging datasets, discrepancies in the information contained in the ABS Census of Population and Housing 2016 and the DoHA visa approval datasets emerged, namely:
individuals reporting in the 2016 Census that they were not an Australian Citizen and without any record of receiving a visa in the DoHA dataset; and
individuals not stating their citizenship status in the 2016 Census (some with a corresponding visa, and some without).
We excluded everyone in either of these groups, as their true status could not be determined.
Assigning migrant and citizenship status
The following migrant and citizenship status categories were derived from the merged data:
Australian citizen - individuals who, in the 2016 Census, identified as “Australian Citizen”;
naturalised Australian Citizen – individuals who, in the 2016 Census, identified as “Australian Citizen” and also had an eligible2 visa recorded, which had been approved prior to the 2016 Census night; and
migrant - individuals who specified in the 2016 Census that they were not an Australian citizen and had an eligible visa recorded in the DoHA dataset.
Findings
Overview
Skills (mis)match is observed in terms of differences in the prevalence of employment, the occupational status attained by migrants and Australian citizens, and median wages. Table 1 provides a summary of South Australian’s and migrants’ labour market experiences in 2016 without controlling for their socio-demographic characteristics. For comparison, a summary of the market experiences across Australia is also shown in Table 2.
The statistics show marked differences between migrants and native Australians, and primary and secondary visa applicants. Employment rates in 2016 were higher for primary applicants compared to secondary applicants, and permanent visa holders who were primary applicants experienced higher employment rates than Australian citizens. Temporary visa holders in South Australia reported lower employment rates than other visa holders or citizens. This pattern is broadly congruent with the average experience across Australia. While employment rates in South Australia were below the Australian average for all visa categories, temporary visa holders (both primary and secondary) experienced significantly lower employment rates in South Australia compared to the average across Australia.
A similar pattern emerged with respect to migrants and citizens in employment. First, in terms of NSC core competency scores, permanent-primary visa holders had the highest average scores, indicating employment in typically higher skilled occupations. They were followed by naturalised citizens who were primary applicants before naturalisation. Temporary visa holders, and those who were secondary applicants were typically employed in occupations with lower core competency scores.
Second, the statistics show differences in median wages and salaries, that is, the amount that at least half of the respective migrant and citizen populations earned. Thus, 50 percent of naturalised citizens earned $59,928 or more, which was marginally higher than the median earnings of Australian citizens ($55,134). Permanent primary residents ($57,002) also earned more than Australian citizens. In contrast, wages and salaries were significantly lower for secondary applicants amongst permanent ($37,226) and temporary ($35,222) residents, and naturalised citizens ($46,428).
Both mean NSC scores and median earnings differences reflected, at least in part, differences in distribution of migrants and citizens in employment across occupations. Temporary visa holders, and secondary applications for permanent and naturalised citizens were more strongly represented amongst labourers, which are typically lower skilled jobs (@tbl-occp-differences). Primary applicants with permanent visas are more strongly represented amongst Professionals.
In analyses reported in the following sections, some of these nominal relationships and associations between migrant status and labour market outcomes change once socio-demographic differences between migrants and citizens are taken into account.
| Australian Citizen | Naturalised | Permanent Visa | Temporary Visa | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Primary | Secondary | Primary | Secondary | Primary | Secondary | ||
| Employed (%) | 81.8% | 81.8% | 76.8% | 83.7% | 66.5% | 79.3% | 64.4% |
| NSC core competencies score (mean) | 5.98 | 6.07 | 5.96 | 6.11 | 5.79 | 5.91 | 5.55 |
| Wages and salaries ($, median) | $60,419 | $65,987 | $52,606 | $64,905 | $43,877 | $54,999 | $40,398 |
| N (all) | 5,670,268 | 695,690 | 219,528 | 352,756 | 96,375 | 153,665 | 29,904 |
| N (employed only) | 4,638,610 | 568,751 | 168,502 | 295,399 | 64,130 | 121,908 | 19,257 |
| Occupation | Australian Citizen | Naturalised | Permanent Visa | Temporary Visa | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Primary | Secondary | Primary | Secondary | Primary | Secondary | ||
| Managers | 14.3% | 12.1% | 7.8% | 11.5% | 7.1% | 11.8% | 6.4% |
| Professionals | 22.9% | 32.7% | 25.4% | 35.2% | 17.8% | 22.8% | 13.3% |
| Technicians and Trade Workers | 14.5% | 14.0% | 9.9% | 15.2% | 9.2% | 18.8% | 6.8% |
| Community and Personal Service Workers | 10.5% | 12.9% | 20.2% | 10.1% | 22.5% | 12.4% | 18.4% |
| Clerical and Administrative Workers | 15.0% | 9.3% | 13.5% | 9.9% | 12.6% | 5.4% | 7.2% |
| Sales Workers | 7.7% | 4.0% | 5.7% | 5.3% | 7.0% | 5.5% | 7.2% |
| Machinery Operators and Drivers | 6.5% | 5.4% | 5.0% | 4.1% | 6.0% | 5.5% | 7.9% |
| Labourers | 8.6% | 9.6% | 12.4% | 8.7% | 17.8% | 17.8% | 32.8% |
Labour market status - Employment rates
Employment rates provide an indication of the capacity of the South Australian labour market to integrate migrants and to provide them with employment. Extant evidence has shown that employment rates increase with time, as migrants acquire a better understanding on how to navigate the job market, obtain work experience and recognition of their prior qualifications (Akay 2016).
The differences in average employment rates shown in Table 1 can be further interrogated by distinguishing between migrants and citizens according to time passed since they obtained their current visa, or obtained Australian citizenship, as recorded in the 2016 Census.
For this analysis, time passed since obtaining the current visa or citizenship is measured by:
Within 1 year of the 2016 Census
Between 1 and 2 years
Between 2 and 3 years
Between 3 and 4 years
Between 4 and 5 years
More than 5 years prior to the 2016 Census3.
This indicator is used as a proxy for time spent in South Australia, and seeks to capture the opportunity to seek and obtain employment for migrants. This indicator is an imperfect measure because it does not capture how long a migrant or citizen might already have lived and worked in South Australia before the Census, or on a previous visa. In addition, in the case of first-time offshore visa applicants, it is unlikely that the date of the visa being granted was also the migrant’s arrival date in South Australia. However that information is not available.4
The indicator also compares different individuals based on how long before 2016 they had obtained their visa, rather than following the same migrants over time. The statistics therefore show how employment rates vary, on average, for migrants with visas of different “age” but should not be read as individual migrant employment trajectories over time.
Table 4 compares the employment rates of migrants and naturalised citizens who had obtained their current visa or Australian citizenship prior to the 2016 Census, using the 2016 employment rate for Australian citizens in South Australia as a benchmark (shown as a horizontal line at 80.6%). While primary applicants and permanent visa holders had high average levels of employment, from the time that their visa was granted (0-1 years), Table 4 shows that there is an initial gap between employment rates of migrants and Australian citizens, which narrows for primary applicants of all visa types and secondary applicants of permanent visa holders as the time since the visa was granted increases.
For primary applicants, employment rates converge to the South Australian average after five years after the latest (or sole) recorded visa was granted. While secondary applicants on permanent visas experienced increasing levels of employment over time, they did not reach the South Australian average. Employment rates amongst secondary applicants of temporary visas were similar to those of their permanent visa equivalents, but dropped off steeply three to four years after that visa was granted.
| 0-1 years | 1-2 years | 2-3 years | 3-4 years | 4-5 years | 5+ years | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Naturalized Citizen | ||||||
| Primary | 79.4% | 85.1% | 86.3% | 82.1% | 82.5% | 80.7% |
| Secondary | * | 76.8% | 75.7% | 76.7% | 78.0% | 75.6% |
| Permanent Visa | ||||||
| Primary | 80.4% | 83.7% | 86.7% | 86.6% | 87.6% | 82.7% |
| Secondary | 55.9% | 59.0% | 64.1% | 66.3% | 71.6% | 71.7% |
| Temporary Visa | ||||||
| Primary | 68.3% | 82.1% | 89.9% | 83.2% | 88.2% | 80.3% |
| Secondary | 58.8% | 63.7% | 65.6% | 56.2% | * | * |
Employment rate by highest educational qualification
Employment rates are known to be affected education levels, regardless of migration status, with individuals with higher levels of education more likely to be employed (Mincer 1975).
At Census night 2016, employment rates were highest for individuals with Certificate level 3 or level 4 qualifications and above, as shown in Figure 2. At high levels of education, permanent visa holders, secondary visa holders, and naturalised citizens all had lower employment rates than Australian citizens living in South Australia, at the same education level. The latter’s employment rates indicated by the dots in the charts below.
Differences in employment rates were most pronounced for secondary applicants of permanent and temporary visa holders (panel 2 of Figure 2). Additionally, primary applicants on temporary visas experienced lower employment rates at all levels of education except for Certificate level 3 or level 4. Although Figure 2 shows secondary applicants of temporary visa holders with high employment rates, it is important to note that there were only 22 individuals identified with this combination in South Australia, and this result should be treated with caution.
Employment rates by remoteness status
Employment rates for migrants and naturalised citizens tended to be higher in regional areas than in cities, whereas for Australian citizens the opposite was the case - employment rates were higher in the major cities, (Table 5). In very remote areas, employment rates for migrants and naturalised citizens were up to 15 percentage points higher than that for Australian citizens and were higher for all visa categories except secondary applicants on permanent visas.
| Visa type | Major Cities | Inner Regional | Outer Regional | Remote | Very Remote |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Australian Citizen | 81.0% | 81.1% | 76.8% | 83.5% | 77.9% |
| Naturalized Citizen - Primary | 80.9% | 84.9% | 82.5% | 87.6% | 89.4% |
| Naturalized Citizen - Secondary | 75.7% | 77.2% | 78.3% | 80.3% | 84.0% |
| Permanent Visa - Primary | 84.0% | 86.0% | 83.5% | 89.9% | 92.0% |
| Permanent Visa - Secondary | 63.6% | 73.6% | 63.2% | 69.0% | 66.7% |
| Temporary Visa - Primary | 72.5% | 81.1% | 86.0% | 86.8% | 92.3% |
| Temporary Visa - Secondary | 60.7% | 72.1% | 60.8% | 76.9% | * |
Occupations and occupational status
The section directly addresses the role of skills in migrant’s employment. This section starts with a generic overview of the association between occupations and educational qualifications, before moving on to an analysis of NSC core competencies that were used to compare the range of occupations that migrants held with those of Australian citizens working in South Australia. As explained previously, these indicators do not identify the skills that migrants or citizens possessed, but the level of skills that an occupation in which they were employed typically required.
Highest educational qualification by occupation
According to the 2016 Census, Australian citizens employed in South Australia tended to be less qualified than migrants and naturalised citizens within any one of the eight major ANZSCO occupational groups. The proportion of migrants and naturalised citizens with graduate and postgraduate qualifications was significantly higher than that of Australian citizens, across all occupational groups as shown in Figure 3. There is strong evidence that migrants working in South Australia were overqualified in most if not all occupational groups.
To further expand on this point, we estimated the mean highest educational qualification5 for each citizen and migrant group within each occupation. The score is weighted by the number of citizens or migrants holding the specific education qualification in each occupation. Australian citizens working in South Australia were without exception the group with the lowest average level of education across all major occupation groups. Conversely, primary applicants with temporary visas had the highest average level of education, across all occupation groups except for Labourers.
The average education attainment gap between Australian citizens and temporary visa holders was lowest for the Professionals occupation group, and largest for Sales workers.
Naturalised citizens - both primary and secondary applicants, had an education level most commensurate with Australian citizens.
The highest level of education of migrants varied within their field of qualification, as illustrated in Figure 5 with regard to the three most common fields of study amongst South Australian workers6: Engineering and Related Technologies, Management and Commerce, and Society and Culture7.
As with Figure 4, migrants and naturalised citizens who had undertaken vocational training or higher degree studies in any of those three main fields of study had obtained higher levels of education than Australian citizens. This is especially true for Management and Commerce qualifications, where almost 1 in 4 migrants and naturalised citizens had a postgraduate degree, compared to about 1 in 10 Australian citizens in that field of study.
NSC Core Competencies
The higher levels of educational qualifications found amongst migrants in employment may not be entirely unexpected. After all, it might have been the desired outcome of visa programs that sought to attract migrants with high level skills otherwise not readily found in the South Australian labour market.
To examine the extent to which that might have been the case, it was necessary to isolate a measure of skill levels and to account separately for potentially confounding socio-demographic characteristics, including educational qualifications. One way of doing so is to conduct regression analysis.
In the absence of a direct measure of the skills of employees (as explained in the introduction), we used NSC core competency scores as a measure of the skill level typically required for the occupations in which migrants and citizens worked.
The results for migrant status only are shown in Figure 6 with associations determined by migrant status and further distinguished between primary and secondary applicants, relative to Australian citizens. The regression was repeated for four financial years (following the 2016 Census) using a balanced sample8. The regression accounted for differences in the highest level of education, industry division of employment, field of study of non-school qualification, remote area status, occupation major group, self-reported English speaking ability, hours worked, sex, and age. The full regression results are shown in Table 7, Table 8, Table 9, Table 10 in the Appendix.
The results show that in comparison to Australian citizens, all naturalised and migrant employees worked in jobs with a lower NSC core competency score, after controlling for their education and other socio-demographic characteristics. The difference was relatively small, and closed over time, yet was especially notable for secondary visa applicants. Compared with migrant status, highest educational attainment and English language competency were statistically significantly more strongly associated with core competency scores.
Figure 7 makes use of the full ATO tax return data available to this project, mapping the mean NSC core competency scores for migrants and citizens over the period from 2010/11 to 2021/22. The statistics include only those migrants and citizens for whom data were available for all years (i.e. a balanced panel). They do not control for socio-demographic or other differences.
The statistics confirm that NSC core competency scores vary by migrant and citizen status. However, the magnitude of the effect is different when not controlling for socio-demographic and other confounding factors. As shown in Figure 7, primary applicant permanent visa holders and naturalised citizens who had been primary applicants tended to work in higher core comptency occupations than Australian citizens. Over time the average core competency score for all visa classes increased, with steep increases seen amongst both primary and secondary temporary visa holders. Secondary applicants to permanent visa holders trailed significantly behind all other groups, barely narrowing the gap to Australian citizen’s average scores.
This suggests that although primary applicant permanent visa holders in the South Australian labour market are working in higher core competency occupations, this is still not commensurate with their higher level of education.
Migrants on specific visa-sub classes
Figure 8 summarises the results based on the same regression as Figure 6 but with a more fine-grained breakdown by visa subclass. A statistically significant difference is indicated in Figure 8 where the error bars do not cross the vertical line at zero. The comparison here is with Australian citizens; naturalised citizens are included amongst the visa sub-classes based on the last visa they held before citizenship. The full set of regression coefficients are shown in the Appendix in Table 11, Table 12, Table 13, Table 14.
The regression shows that, all else equal:
Most visa sub-classes were associated with working in occupations requiring lower core competency scores than was typical for Australian citizens;
Only migrants on the Employer Nomination Scheme visa were associated with working in occupations with higher core competency scores.
No statistically significant differences in core competency scores were observed for holders of visa sub-classes:
Independent
Regional Sponsored Migration Scheme
Skilled
Employer Nomination
These differences held across tax years.
Migrants on temporary visas
An additional analysis of aggregated temporary visa subclass determined differences between employer sponsored visas; family, state or territory sponsored visas; and non-sponsored education visas, after controlling for the same socio-demographic variables as in Figure 6. The results show that, all else equal:
Migrants on employer sponsored visas, and family/state/territory government visas initially worked in occupations requiring the same level of skill than those who were not sponsored.
Over time, those on sponsored visas work began to work in occupations with a lower required level of skill than non sponsored migrants.
Education levels of Certificate III and IV and above, and Advanced Diploma and Diploma Level, as well as English proficiency were statistically significantly associated with lower skill level occupations.
Wage differentials between migrants and Australian born workers
In this section, the Census 2016 is taken as a starting point at which wages were first recorded. For individuals on visas, only those who were in Australia the year prior to the Census were included for analysis to ensure that all individuals analysed had the potential to generate a full year’s earnings - notwithstanding periods of inactivity of unemployment. Crosstabulations below are median values across variables.
As already indicated in Table 1, on aggregate, earnings were typically lower for temporary residents (both primary and secondary applicants), but higher for primary applicants who were naturalised, or on permanent visas.
Education
Education brings higher wages, however this relationship was not observed for secondary applicants or temporary residents as shown in Figure 10. Primary applicants on permanent visas and naturalised citizens realised similar wages to Australian citizens. The wage differentials are likely due to the disproportionate presence of migrants with postgraduate and other high level qualifications working in lower skill level, and lower pay occupations. The positive relationship between education and earnings which was observed for Australian citizens (indicated by the dots in Figure 10, progressing diagonally) was much less pronounced, if at all apparent, fir migrants and naturalised citizens, indicating that they did not receive the same returns from education as Australian citizens.
Occupation
Earning differentials observed by highest educational qualification were not mirrored by earnings differentials across occupations, as shown in Figure 11. Within occupations, there were only minor wage differentials, especially for primary applicant permanent residents, and naturalised citizens. Temporary visa holders, especially secondary applicants, earned less than Australian citizens for the same job.
Industry
Wage differentials by industry were much less pronounced, however it should be noted that disaggregation by industry, visa status, and primary/secondary applicant status for South Australia resulted in some combinations having low counts. For example, we only observe 29 temporary residents as secondary applicants working in the Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing industry. As such, these averages should be treated with caution.
However, there did not appear to be many differences between industry of employment and wage, as shown in Figure 12. Secondary applicants, and temporary residents had lower observed wages than Australian citizens. In contrast, temporary residents working in the Mining industry earned significantly more than Australian citizens.
Regression results
The findings reported in this section so far have not controlled for the socio-demographic, educational, occupation or industry characteristics of migrants and citizens in employment in Australia. A separate analysis of wages and salaries earned in 2016/17 through to 2019/20 financial years was undertaken to include those control variables. The regression results for migrant type is shown in Figure 13, with additional regression results shown in Table 16, Table 17, Table 18, Table 19 in the Appendix.
Not all differences proved to be statistically significant. The results for migrant type showed that, all else equal:
Naturalised citizens who were the primary applicant to their last visa earned more than Australian Citizens, across all four years analysed. This was the only migrant group consistently to have earned more than Australian citizens.
Secondary applicants of both temporary and permanent residents earned consistently less than Australian citizens. The negative earnings gap for secondary applicants was estimated to be between $5,000 to $10,000 per year.
There was no difference between wages for Australian citizens and primary applicants of temporary residents except in 2019/20. However, this difference was only marginally statistically significant.
Industry of employment, highest level of educational attainment, sex, and occupation were the other significant drivers of wage differentials. The effect of visa type relative to these factors was small.
Conclusion
This report has been produced to determine the level of skill (mis)matching in the South Australian labour market for migrants. From the data, we found that migrants across all cohorts (i.e. permanent, temporary, naturalised) had higher average education levels across all major occupation groups compared to South Australian citizens. This underscores the effect of Australia’s skilled migration program in prioritising skills, which had served to increase the overall skills profile of South Australia’s population.
To recapitulate, the overview of overall findings (without controlling for socio-demographic) as earlier presented underscores that migrants had greater employment outcomes. They exhibit better employment rates, worked in occupations with higher average NSC core competency scores and received higher median wages and salaries than Australian citizens which underlines their contribution to the South Australian labour market. However, when it comes to understanding the level of skills (mis)match of skilled migrants in South Australia, deeper analysis of the ABS, ATO and Department of Home Affairs data modules through PLIDA, has yielded the following findings.
Employment
Despite the initial gap between employment rates for migrants and South Australian natives, this rapidly narrowed with primary permanent visa holders and naturalised citizens seeing high employment rates converging to the South Australian average. However, secondary applicants - particularly those on temporary visas – made strides through increasing employment rates but still fall short of the South Australian average.
Given that South Australia is wholly defined as regional for immigration purposes, it was interesting to see that employment rates varied spatially. All migrants and naturalised citizens across all cohorts had higher employment rates in regional and remote South Australian locations compared to Greater Adelaide. This was particularly the case in very remote locations with migrants and naturalised citizens across all cohorts (with the exception of secondary applicants on permanent visas) having higher employment rates than South Australian natives. However, while South Australian natives experienced higher employment rates in metropolitan Adelaide than most migrant cohorts, permanent primary visa holders had greater employment rates.
However, it is important to be cognisant that migrants (across all cohorts), and South Australian citizens were unevenly distributed across major occupational groups with temporary visa holders, and secondary applicants for permanent and naturalised citizens, more prevalent amongst labourers (Table 3). Not insignificantly, all secondary applicants were also overrepresented in Community and Personal Service Workers, a sector that relies heavily on an overseas-born workforce and faces critical skill shortages (Morrisson-Dayan 2019). Conversely, primary applicants with permanent visas are more strongly represented among Professionals. This not only highlights the disparities in employment between migrants and citizens, but also is indicative of the impact of visa status on occupational distribution and skill levels. This said, when compared with migrant status, level of education and English language proficiency had a stronger association in determining the skill level (i.e. NSC core competency) of one’s occupation.
Occupation skill level - NSC core competency
In determining the levels of skills (mis)match by comparing occupations held by migrants and South Australian natives, we used the NSC to measure the level of skill required in each occupation.
Controlling for education and other socio-demographic characteristics through regression analysis revealed that all migrants, including naturalised citizens, tended to work in lower NSC core competency score occupations than South Australian natives. Although the difference was relatively small with improvements seen across all migrant cohorts, secondary applicants on temporary visas continued to lag other migrant cohorts.
When using ATO data to map average NSC competency scores over a 10-year period from 2010/11 to 2021/22, the importance of visa status was noticeable. Without controlling for socio-demographic factors – differences emerged with primary permanent visa holders and primary naturalised citizens performing as well, if not better, than South Australian natives in higher competency score occupations. Although the average NSC competency scores did increase over time even among both primary and secondary temporary visa holders, we found that secondary permanent visa holders still fell behind other migrant cohorts.
Wages
The role of education level also influenced wages and salaries. Primary applicants holding permanent visas and naturalised citizens earned close to South Australian natives, in contrast to both primary and secondary applicants on temporary visas, and secondary applicants on permanent visas, who experienced the greatest disparity. This pattern was similarly reflected when analysing mean wages and salaries by occupation.
When analysing this by industry, we found that although wage differentials were smaller, temporary visa holders, particularly secondary applicants had lower observed wages than South Australian natives. When running regressions for wages and controlling for socio-demographic factors and other characteristics, migrant visa cohorts/type had a smaller effect on wage differentials compared to education level, sex and occupation. Secondary applicants on both temporary and permanent visas had the largest negative gap earnings ($5,000-$10,000/annum) with no difference for primary applicants on temporary visas. It is, however, notable that primary applicants who are naturalised citizens consistently earned more than South Australian natives. As mentioned, while visa type only had a relatively smaller effect on wage differentials, the fact that the overall higher skill profile and eventual naturalisation could suggest that the realisation of one’s maximum earning potential relies on securing citizenship.
Temporary, structured and sponsored disadvantage?
The paper contains a number of key findings. When controlling for socio-demographic and other characteristics, we show that the labour market outcomes of immigrants converge to those of the native-born over time regarding employment rate and skill level of their occupation. One could surmise that this convergence is partly due to a better match of the skills of migrants who were overeducated or overqualified in the first instance. This said, we have observed some nuances when comparing migrant cohorts and visa type.
First, we note that migrants on sponsored visas in South Australia worked in occupations with lower skill requirements than those on non-sponsored visas. This is an unexpected finding given that employer-sponsored visa holders generally perform well in the labour market (Hawthorne and To 2014) . In contrast, the opposite result was observed when comparing against the whole of Australia data. This suggests a specificity to the function and demand of the South Australian labour market. This analysis includes those sponsored by the South Australian Government and by family members, however, it is difficult to be definitive without additional data (i.e. nominated occupation).
At the same time, our findings show that migrant outcomes can be determined by their visa and migration category. Our analysis revealed differences revealing that naturalised citizens and permanent primary visa holders generally performed better than temporary visa holders. In addition, a clear trend was observed of negative outcomes for temporary visa holders and for secondary applicants (across temporary and permanent visa cohorts). This was apparent across visa types, including secondary applicants who later became naturalised citizens. Secondary applicants had a lower employment rate, worked in occupations with lower skill requirements and received lower median earnings. The difference was particularly pronounced for secondary applicants on temporary visas who had outcomes that were significantly poorer across the board which were present even after accounting for differences in education, English speaking proficiency, and industry of employment.
Secondary applicants are regarded by some as a blind spot in Australia’s skilled migration program (Webb 2015). The findings strongly support this as it indicates that skilled migrants in South Australia are underutilised in terms of their skills for secondary applicants, particularly those on temporary visas. This serves to highlight a potential double disadvantage. Firstly, those on temporary visas face tend to face barriers to employment due to employers preferring permanent visa holders or those who had acquired citizenship (Tran et al. 2020; Tan et al. 2019). Secondly, as secondary applicants, they are likely to be female (“Characteristics of Recent Migrants” 2020) with added caregiving and household responsibilities (Ho 2006) alongside restricted access to early childhood education and care subsidies due to the nature of casual forms of work that are more prevalent for temporary and secondary migrants (Naldini, Adamson, and Hamilton 2022).
To address this gender inequality and better capitalise on the human capital of all skilled migrants, it is imperative to gain a deeper understanding of the settlement experiences and challenges faced by secondary/temporary migrants. Moreover, it is critical to also understand how this intersects with Australia’s immigration regime (Boucher 2007) as this will have implications on increasing overall productivity. Doing so will assist in ways to promote skills utilisation among skilled secondary/temporary migrants and effectively integrate them into the labour market. Further, the fact that sponsored visa holders (inclusive family and State-sponsored) were associated with lower core competency occupations points to the need for further research to better understand how employer-sponsored programs and the South Australian Government’s State-sponsored scheme are positioned in the wider context of Australia’s skilled migration program at the Federal level where larger zones such as Tasmania, the Northern Territory and South Australia that are wholly defined as regional for migration purposes are also dependent on regional migration schemes.
Appendix
| Visa Type | Visa Subclass Code | Visa Subclass Label |
|---|---|---|
| Temporary Visa | ||
| Bridging Visa | 10 | Bridging A |
| Bridging Visa | 20 | Bridging B |
| Bridging Visa | 30 | Bridging C |
| Bridging Visa | 40 | Bridging (Prospective Applicant) |
| Bridging Visa | 41 | Bridging (Non-Applicant) |
| Bridging Visa | 50 | Bridging (General) |
| Bridging Visa | 60 | Bridging F |
| Skilled Temporary Resident | 418 | Educational |
| Skilled Temporary Resident | 422 | Medical Practitioner |
| Skilled Temporary Resident | 457 | Temporary Work (Skilled) |
| Sponsored (RSMS) | 475 | Skilled - Regional Sponsored |
| Recognised Graduate | 476 | Skilled - Recognised Graduate |
| Skilled Temporary Resident | 482 | Temporary Skill Shortage |
| Other Temporary Entrant | 485 | Temporary Graduate |
| Sponsored (RSMS) | 487 | Skilled - Regional Sponsored |
| Sponsored (RSMS) | 489 | Skilled - Regional (Provisional) |
| Skilled Independent Regional | 495 | Skilled Independent Regional (Provisional) |
| SAL-Regional Linked/SAS - Regional (DAS) | 496 | Skilled Designated Area Sponsored (Provisional) |
| Other Temporary Entrant | 497 | Graduate Skilled |
| Permanent Visa | ||
| Skilled Australian Linked/Skilled Australian Sponsored (SAL/SAS) | 105 | Skilled - Australian Linked |
| Sponsored (RSMS) | 119 | Regional Sponsored Migration Scheme |
| Employer Sponsored | 120 | Labour Agreement |
| Employer Sponsored | 121 | Employer Nomination Scheme |
| Distinguished Talent | 124 | Distinguished Talent |
| Distinguished Talent | 125 | Distinguished Talent and Special Service (Independent) |
| Skilled Independent | 126 | Independent |
| Business Skills | 128 | Senior Executive |
| Business Skills | 130 | State/Territory Sponsored Senior Executive |
| State/Territory Nominated Independent (STNI) | 134 | Skill Matching |
| Skilled Independent | 136 | Regional Independent |
| State/Territory Nominated Independent (STNI) | 137 | State/Territory Nominated Independent |
| Skilled Australian Linked/Skilled Australian Sponsored (SAL/SAS) | 138 | Skilled - Australian Sponsored |
| SAL-Regional Linked/SAS - Regional (DAS) | 139 | Skilled-Designated Area Sponsored |
| Resident | 155 | Five Year Resident Return |
| Resident | 157 | Three Month Resident Return |
| Business Skills | 161 | Senior Executive |
| Business Skills | 164 | State/Territory Sponsored Senior Executive |
| Skilled Independent | 175 | Skilled - Independent |
| Sponsored (RSMS) | 176 | Skilled - Sponsored |
| Employer Sponsored | 186 | Employer Nomination Scheme |
| Sponsored (RSMS) | 187 | Regional Sponsored Migration Scheme |
| Skilled Independent | 189 | Skilled - Independent |
| Skilled Independent | 190 | Skilled - Nominated |
| Skilled Independent | 805 | Skilled |
| Business Skills | 841 | Senior Executive |
| Business Skills | 843 | State/Territory Sponsored Executive |
| Employer Sponsored | 855 | Labour Agreement |
| Employer Sponsored | 856 | Employer Nomination |
| Sponsored (RSMS) | 857 | Regional Sponsored Migration Scheme |
| Distinguished Talent | 858 | Global Talent |
| Skilled Independent | 861 | Skilled - Onshore Independent New Zealand Citizen |
| Skilled Australian Linked/Skilled Australian Sponsored (SAL/SAS) | 862 | Skilled - Onshore Australian - Sponsored New Zealand Citizen |
| Employer Sponsored | 863 | Skilled - Onshore Regional - Sponsored New Zealand Citizen |
| Skilled Independent | 880 | Skilled - Independent Overseas Student |
| Skilled Australian Linked/Skilled Australian Sponsored (SAL/SAS) | 881 | Skilled - Australian Sponsored - Overseas Student |
| SAL-Regional Linked/SAS - Regional (DAS) | 882 | Skilled - Designated Area Sponsored-Overseas Student |
| Skilled Independent | 885 | Skilled - Independent |
| Skilled Sponsored | 886 | Skilled - Sponsored |
| Sponsored (RSMS) | 887 | Skilled - Regional |
Education Gap by State
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Regression Tables
NSC Core Competencies
| label | estimate | conf.low | conf.high | p.value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Accommodation and Food Services | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Administrative and Support Services | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing | −0.15 | −0.17 | −0.12 | 0.00 |
| Arts and Recreation Services | −0.03 | −0.05 | 0.00 | 0.04 |
| Construction | 0.12 | 0.10 | 0.14 | 0.00 |
| Education and Training | 0.27 | 0.25 | 0.29 | 0.00 |
| Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services | 0.19 | 0.17 | 0.22 | 0.00 |
| Financial and Insurance Services | 0.13 | 0.11 | 0.15 | 0.00 |
| Health Care and Social Assistance | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.14 | 0.00 |
| Information Media and Telecommunications | 0.20 | 0.17 | 0.22 | 0.00 |
| Manufacturing | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.00 |
| Mining | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.00 |
| Other Services | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.00 |
| Professional, Scientific and Technical Services | 0.26 | 0.24 | 0.27 | 0.00 |
| Public Administration and Safety | 0.33 | 0.32 | 0.35 | 0.00 |
| Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services | 0.36 | 0.34 | 0.39 | 0.00 |
| Retail Trade | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.02 | 0.74 |
| Transport, Postal and Warehousing | −0.06 | −0.08 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Wholesale Trade | 0.14 | 0.12 | 0.16 | 0.00 |
| Australian Citizen | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Naturalized Citizen - Primary | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Naturalized Citizen - Secondary | −0.08 | −0.10 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Permanent Visa - Primary | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Permanent Visa - Secondary | −0.17 | −0.19 | −0.14 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Visa - Primary | −0.14 | −0.17 | −0.12 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Visa - Secondary | −0.32 | −0.38 | −0.26 | 0.00 |
| Natural and Physical Sciences | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Information Technology | 0.00 | −0.02 | 0.02 | 0.96 |
| Engineering and Related Technologies | −0.07 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Architecture and Building | −0.12 | −0.14 | −0.11 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Environmental and Related Studies | −0.36 | −0.38 | −0.34 | 0.00 |
| Health | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.00 |
| Education | −0.09 | −0.10 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Management and Commerce | −0.08 | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Society and Culture | −0.08 | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Creative Arts | −0.26 | −0.28 | −0.24 | 0.00 |
| Food, Hospitality and Personal Services | −0.14 | −0.16 | −0.12 | 0.00 |
| Mixed Field Programmes | −0.16 | −0.27 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Major Cities of Australia | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Inner Regional Australia | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Outer Regional Australia | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Remote Australia | −0.04 | −0.06 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Very Remote Australia | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.00 |
| Managers | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Professionals | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.00 |
| Technicians and Trades Workers | −0.70 | −0.71 | −0.69 | 0.00 |
| Community And Personal Service Workers | −0.55 | −0.57 | −0.54 | 0.00 |
| Clerical And Administrative Workers | −0.23 | −0.24 | −0.22 | 0.00 |
| Sales Workers | −0.42 | −0.43 | −0.41 | 0.00 |
| Machinery Operators and Drivers | −1.12 | −1.14 | −1.11 | 0.00 |
| Labourers | −1.15 | −1.17 | −1.14 | 0.00 |
| Postgraduate Degree | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Graduate Diploma and Graduate Certificate Level | −0.06 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Bachelor Degree Level | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Advanced Diploma and Diploma Level | −0.18 | −0.19 | −0.17 | 0.00 |
| Certificate III & IV Level | −0.40 | −0.41 | −0.39 | 0.00 |
| Secondary Education - Years 10 and above | −0.39 | −0.41 | −0.37 | 0.00 |
| Certificate I & II Level | −0.55 | −0.64 | −0.46 | 0.00 |
| Speaks English Only | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Uses other language and speaks Enlgish: Very well | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Well | −0.19 | −0.21 | −0.18 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not well | −0.27 | −0.32 | −0.22 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not at all | −0.15 | −0.38 | 0.08 | 0.21 |
| Hours Worked | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Male | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Female | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.95 |
| salary_1617 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2² | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| label | estimate | conf.low | conf.high | p.value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Accommodation and Food Services | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Administrative and Support Services | 0.01 | −0.01 | 0.03 | 0.29 |
| Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing | −0.18 | −0.20 | −0.15 | 0.00 |
| Arts and Recreation Services | −0.06 | −0.08 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Construction | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.10 | 0.00 |
| Education and Training | 0.22 | 0.21 | 0.24 | 0.00 |
| Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services | 0.15 | 0.13 | 0.18 | 0.00 |
| Financial and Insurance Services | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.11 | 0.00 |
| Health Care and Social Assistance | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 0.00 |
| Information Media and Telecommunications | 0.16 | 0.13 | 0.18 | 0.00 |
| Manufacturing | −0.01 | −0.02 | 0.01 | 0.32 |
| Mining | 0.02 | −0.01 | 0.04 | 0.18 |
| Other Services | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.01 |
| Professional, Scientific and Technical Services | 0.21 | 0.20 | 0.23 | 0.00 |
| Public Administration and Safety | 0.28 | 0.27 | 0.30 | 0.00 |
| Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services | 0.31 | 0.29 | 0.34 | 0.00 |
| Retail Trade | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.01 | 0.00 |
| Transport, Postal and Warehousing | −0.11 | −0.13 | −0.09 | 0.00 |
| Wholesale Trade | 0.10 | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.00 |
| Australian Citizen | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Naturalized Citizen - Primary | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Naturalized Citizen - Secondary | −0.08 | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Permanent Visa - Primary | −0.03 | −0.05 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Permanent Visa - Secondary | −0.16 | −0.19 | −0.14 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Visa - Primary | −0.11 | −0.14 | −0.09 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Visa - Secondary | −0.27 | −0.33 | −0.22 | 0.00 |
| Natural and Physical Sciences | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Information Technology | −0.01 | −0.03 | 0.01 | 0.41 |
| Engineering and Related Technologies | −0.08 | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Architecture and Building | −0.13 | −0.15 | −0.11 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Environmental and Related Studies | −0.37 | −0.39 | −0.35 | 0.00 |
| Health | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.00 |
| Education | −0.09 | −0.11 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Management and Commerce | −0.09 | −0.10 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Society and Culture | −0.09 | −0.10 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Creative Arts | −0.27 | −0.29 | −0.25 | 0.00 |
| Food, Hospitality and Personal Services | −0.16 | −0.18 | −0.14 | 0.00 |
| Mixed Field Programmes | −0.21 | −0.32 | −0.10 | 0.00 |
| Major Cities of Australia | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Inner Regional Australia | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Outer Regional Australia | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Remote Australia | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Very Remote Australia | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.08 | 0.01 |
| Managers | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Professionals | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.00 |
| Technicians and Trades Workers | −0.70 | −0.71 | −0.69 | 0.00 |
| Community And Personal Service Workers | −0.53 | −0.54 | −0.52 | 0.00 |
| Clerical And Administrative Workers | −0.22 | −0.23 | −0.21 | 0.00 |
| Sales Workers | −0.40 | −0.42 | −0.39 | 0.00 |
| Machinery Operators and Drivers | −1.11 | −1.12 | −1.09 | 0.00 |
| Labourers | −1.12 | −1.13 | −1.10 | 0.00 |
| Postgraduate Degree | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Graduate Diploma and Graduate Certificate Level | −0.06 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Bachelor Degree Level | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Advanced Diploma and Diploma Level | −0.20 | −0.21 | −0.18 | 0.00 |
| Certificate III & IV Level | −0.42 | −0.43 | −0.41 | 0.00 |
| Secondary Education - Years 10 and above | −0.41 | −0.43 | −0.39 | 0.00 |
| Certificate I & II Level | −0.54 | −0.63 | −0.45 | 0.00 |
| Speaks English Only | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Uses other language and speaks Enlgish: Very well | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Well | −0.19 | −0.21 | −0.18 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not well | −0.29 | −0.34 | −0.24 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not at all | −0.18 | −0.41 | 0.05 | 0.13 |
| Hours Worked | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Male | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Female | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.35 |
| salary_1617 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2² | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| label | estimate | conf.low | conf.high | p.value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Accommodation and Food Services | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Administrative and Support Services | −0.02 | −0.04 | 0.00 | 0.04 |
| Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing | −0.21 | −0.23 | −0.18 | 0.00 |
| Arts and Recreation Services | −0.09 | −0.12 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Construction | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.00 |
| Education and Training | 0.18 | 0.16 | 0.19 | 0.00 |
| Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services | 0.10 | 0.08 | 0.13 | 0.00 |
| Financial and Insurance Services | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.00 |
| Health Care and Social Assistance | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.00 |
| Information Media and Telecommunications | 0.11 | 0.08 | 0.14 | 0.00 |
| Manufacturing | −0.05 | −0.07 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Mining | −0.03 | −0.05 | 0.00 | 0.03 |
| Other Services | −0.02 | −0.03 | 0.00 | 0.08 |
| Professional, Scientific and Technical Services | 0.16 | 0.15 | 0.18 | 0.00 |
| Public Administration and Safety | 0.23 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 0.00 |
| Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services | 0.24 | 0.22 | 0.27 | 0.00 |
| Retail Trade | −0.06 | −0.07 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Transport, Postal and Warehousing | −0.16 | −0.18 | −0.14 | 0.00 |
| Wholesale Trade | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.00 |
| Australian Citizen | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Naturalized Citizen - Primary | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Naturalized Citizen - Secondary | −0.07 | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Permanent Visa - Primary | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Permanent Visa - Secondary | −0.16 | −0.18 | −0.13 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Visa - Primary | −0.12 | −0.14 | −0.09 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Visa - Secondary | −0.27 | −0.32 | −0.21 | 0.00 |
| Natural and Physical Sciences | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Information Technology | −0.01 | −0.03 | 0.01 | 0.53 |
| Engineering and Related Technologies | −0.08 | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Architecture and Building | −0.13 | −0.15 | −0.12 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Environmental and Related Studies | −0.38 | −0.40 | −0.36 | 0.00 |
| Health | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.00 |
| Education | −0.10 | −0.12 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Management and Commerce | −0.10 | −0.11 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Society and Culture | −0.09 | −0.11 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Creative Arts | −0.27 | −0.29 | −0.25 | 0.00 |
| Food, Hospitality and Personal Services | −0.17 | −0.19 | −0.16 | 0.00 |
| Mixed Field Programmes | −0.21 | −0.33 | −0.10 | 0.00 |
| Major Cities of Australia | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Inner Regional Australia | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Outer Regional Australia | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Remote Australia | −0.06 | −0.07 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Very Remote Australia | 0.03 | −0.01 | 0.06 | 0.10 |
| Managers | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Professionals | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.00 |
| Technicians and Trades Workers | −0.69 | −0.70 | −0.68 | 0.00 |
| Community And Personal Service Workers | −0.51 | −0.52 | −0.50 | 0.00 |
| Clerical And Administrative Workers | −0.20 | −0.21 | −0.19 | 0.00 |
| Sales Workers | −0.37 | −0.38 | −0.35 | 0.00 |
| Machinery Operators and Drivers | −1.08 | −1.10 | −1.06 | 0.00 |
| Labourers | −1.08 | −1.09 | −1.06 | 0.00 |
| Postgraduate Degree | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Graduate Diploma and Graduate Certificate Level | −0.07 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Bachelor Degree Level | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Advanced Diploma and Diploma Level | −0.21 | −0.22 | −0.20 | 0.00 |
| Certificate III & IV Level | −0.44 | −0.45 | −0.43 | 0.00 |
| Secondary Education - Years 10 and above | −0.43 | −0.45 | −0.42 | 0.00 |
| Certificate I & II Level | −0.58 | −0.67 | −0.50 | 0.00 |
| Speaks English Only | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Uses other language and speaks Enlgish: Very well | −0.05 | −0.05 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Well | −0.20 | −0.21 | −0.18 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not well | −0.30 | −0.36 | −0.25 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not at all | −0.26 | −0.50 | −0.03 | 0.03 |
| Hours Worked | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Male | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Female | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.11 |
| salary_1617 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2² | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| label | estimate | conf.low | conf.high | p.value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Accommodation and Food Services | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Administrative and Support Services | −0.04 | −0.06 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing | −0.22 | −0.25 | −0.19 | 0.00 |
| Arts and Recreation Services | −0.11 | −0.14 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Construction | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.00 |
| Education and Training | 0.15 | 0.14 | 0.17 | 0.00 |
| Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services | 0.08 | 0.06 | 0.11 | 0.00 |
| Financial and Insurance Services | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.02 |
| Health Care and Social Assistance | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.02 | 0.74 |
| Information Media and Telecommunications | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.12 | 0.00 |
| Manufacturing | −0.07 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Mining | −0.04 | −0.07 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Other Services | −0.03 | −0.05 | −0.01 | 0.00 |
| Professional, Scientific and Technical Services | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.16 | 0.00 |
| Public Administration and Safety | 0.21 | 0.19 | 0.22 | 0.00 |
| Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services | 0.21 | 0.19 | 0.24 | 0.00 |
| Retail Trade | −0.07 | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Transport, Postal and Warehousing | −0.17 | −0.19 | −0.15 | 0.00 |
| Wholesale Trade | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.00 |
| Australian Citizen | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Naturalized Citizen - Primary | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Naturalized Citizen - Secondary | −0.06 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Permanent Visa - Primary | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.01 | 0.00 |
| Permanent Visa - Secondary | −0.13 | −0.16 | −0.11 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Visa - Primary | −0.11 | −0.14 | −0.09 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Visa - Secondary | −0.26 | −0.32 | −0.21 | 0.00 |
| Natural and Physical Sciences | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Information Technology | −0.01 | −0.03 | 0.01 | 0.28 |
| Engineering and Related Technologies | −0.09 | −0.10 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Architecture and Building | −0.14 | −0.16 | −0.12 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Environmental and Related Studies | −0.39 | −0.41 | −0.37 | 0.00 |
| Health | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.00 |
| Education | −0.10 | −0.12 | −0.09 | 0.00 |
| Management and Commerce | −0.10 | −0.12 | −0.09 | 0.00 |
| Society and Culture | −0.09 | −0.11 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Creative Arts | −0.26 | −0.28 | −0.24 | 0.00 |
| Food, Hospitality and Personal Services | −0.18 | −0.20 | −0.16 | 0.00 |
| Mixed Field Programmes | −0.25 | −0.36 | −0.13 | 0.00 |
| Major Cities of Australia | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Inner Regional Australia | −0.04 | −0.04 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Outer Regional Australia | −0.06 | −0.07 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Remote Australia | −0.06 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Very Remote Australia | 0.02 | −0.02 | 0.06 | 0.27 |
| Managers | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Professionals | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.00 |
| Technicians and Trades Workers | −0.69 | −0.70 | −0.68 | 0.00 |
| Community And Personal Service Workers | −0.49 | −0.50 | −0.48 | 0.00 |
| Clerical And Administrative Workers | −0.20 | −0.21 | −0.19 | 0.00 |
| Sales Workers | −0.35 | −0.37 | −0.34 | 0.00 |
| Machinery Operators and Drivers | −1.06 | −1.07 | −1.04 | 0.00 |
| Labourers | −1.05 | −1.06 | −1.03 | 0.00 |
| Postgraduate Degree | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Graduate Diploma and Graduate Certificate Level | −0.07 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Bachelor Degree Level | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Advanced Diploma and Diploma Level | −0.21 | −0.23 | −0.20 | 0.00 |
| Certificate III & IV Level | −0.45 | −0.46 | −0.44 | 0.00 |
| Secondary Education - Years 10 and above | −0.44 | −0.46 | −0.43 | 0.00 |
| Certificate I & II Level | −0.58 | −0.67 | −0.49 | 0.00 |
| Speaks English Only | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Uses other language and speaks Enlgish: Very well | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Well | −0.20 | −0.22 | −0.19 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not well | −0.28 | −0.33 | −0.23 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not at all | −0.22 | −0.46 | 0.02 | 0.07 |
| Hours Worked | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Male | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Female | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
| salary_1617 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.03 |
| AGEP, 2² | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.19 |
Specific visa subclasses
| label | estimate | conf.low | conf.high | p.value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Accommodation and Food Services | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Administrative and Support Services | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing | −0.15 | −0.18 | −0.12 | 0.00 |
| Arts and Recreation Services | −0.03 | −0.05 | 0.00 | 0.04 |
| Construction | 0.12 | 0.10 | 0.14 | 0.00 |
| Education and Training | 0.27 | 0.25 | 0.28 | 0.00 |
| Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services | 0.19 | 0.16 | 0.21 | 0.00 |
| Financial and Insurance Services | 0.13 | 0.11 | 0.15 | 0.00 |
| Health Care and Social Assistance | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.14 | 0.00 |
| Information Media and Telecommunications | 0.20 | 0.17 | 0.22 | 0.00 |
| Manufacturing | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.00 |
| Mining | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.00 |
| Other Services | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.00 |
| Professional, Scientific and Technical Services | 0.26 | 0.24 | 0.27 | 0.00 |
| Public Administration and Safety | 0.33 | 0.31 | 0.34 | 0.00 |
| Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services | 0.36 | 0.34 | 0.39 | 0.00 |
| Retail Trade | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.02 | 0.83 |
| Transport, Postal and Warehousing | −0.07 | −0.09 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Wholesale Trade | 0.14 | 0.12 | 0.16 | 0.00 |
| Australian Citizen | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Bridging A | −0.20 | −0.24 | −0.17 | 0.00 |
| Bridging B | 0.04 | −0.08 | 0.15 | 0.54 |
| Skilled - Australian Linked | −0.04 | −0.10 | 0.01 | 0.11 |
| Regional Sponsored Migration Scheme | −0.01 | −0.03 | 0.01 | 0.35 |
| Employer Nomination Scheme | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.12 | 0.00 |
| Independent | −0.02 | −0.07 | 0.02 | 0.28 |
| Skill Matching | −0.17 | −0.27 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Regional Independent | −0.06 | −0.09 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| State/Territory Nominated Independent | −0.06 | −0.10 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Skilled-Designated Area Sponsored | −0.09 | −0.14 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Five Year Resident Return | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Independent | −0.07 | −0.09 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Sponsored | −0.07 | −0.10 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Nominated | −0.12 | −0.14 | −0.09 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Work (Skilled) | −0.11 | −0.15 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Graduate | −0.20 | −0.26 | −0.14 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Regional (Provisional) | −0.27 | −0.32 | −0.23 | 0.00 |
| Skilled | −0.02 | −0.13 | 0.09 | 0.71 |
| Labour Agreement | −0.12 | −0.22 | −0.01 | 0.04 |
| Employer Nomination | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Independent Overseas Student | −0.09 | −0.14 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Regional | −0.22 | −0.24 | −0.20 | 0.00 |
| Natural and Physical Sciences | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Information Technology | 0.01 | −0.01 | 0.03 | 0.38 |
| Engineering and Related Technologies | −0.07 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Architecture and Building | −0.12 | −0.14 | −0.10 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Environmental and Related Studies | −0.36 | −0.38 | −0.34 | 0.00 |
| Health | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.00 |
| Education | −0.08 | −0.10 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Management and Commerce | −0.07 | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Society and Culture | −0.08 | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Creative Arts | −0.26 | −0.28 | −0.24 | 0.00 |
| Food, Hospitality and Personal Services | −0.14 | −0.16 | −0.12 | 0.00 |
| Mixed Field Programmes | −0.17 | −0.28 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Major Cities of Australia | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Inner Regional Australia | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Outer Regional Australia | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Remote Australia | −0.04 | −0.06 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Very Remote Australia | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.00 |
| Managers | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Professionals | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.00 |
| Technicians and Trades Workers | −0.70 | −0.71 | −0.69 | 0.00 |
| Community And Personal Service Workers | −0.55 | −0.56 | −0.53 | 0.00 |
| Clerical And Administrative Workers | −0.23 | −0.24 | −0.22 | 0.00 |
| Sales Workers | −0.41 | −0.43 | −0.40 | 0.00 |
| Machinery Operators and Drivers | −1.12 | −1.13 | −1.10 | 0.00 |
| Labourers | −1.14 | −1.16 | −1.13 | 0.00 |
| Postgraduate Degree | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Graduate Diploma and Graduate Certificate Level | −0.07 | −0.08 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Bachelor Degree Level | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Advanced Diploma and Diploma Level | −0.20 | −0.21 | −0.18 | 0.00 |
| Certificate III & IV Level | −0.41 | −0.42 | −0.40 | 0.00 |
| Secondary Education - Years 10 and above | −0.40 | −0.42 | −0.38 | 0.00 |
| Certificate I & II Level | −0.57 | −0.66 | −0.48 | 0.00 |
| Speaks English Only | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Uses other language and speaks Enlgish: Very well | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Well | −0.17 | −0.19 | −0.15 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not well | −0.27 | −0.32 | −0.22 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not at all | −0.16 | −0.40 | 0.08 | 0.19 |
| Hours Worked | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Male | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Female | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.91 |
| salary_1617 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2² | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| label | estimate | conf.low | conf.high | p.value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Accommodation and Food Services | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Administrative and Support Services | 0.01 | −0.01 | 0.03 | 0.53 |
| Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing | −0.18 | −0.21 | −0.15 | 0.00 |
| Arts and Recreation Services | −0.06 | −0.08 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Construction | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.10 | 0.00 |
| Education and Training | 0.22 | 0.20 | 0.23 | 0.00 |
| Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services | 0.15 | 0.12 | 0.17 | 0.00 |
| Financial and Insurance Services | 0.08 | 0.06 | 0.10 | 0.00 |
| Health Care and Social Assistance | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 0.00 |
| Information Media and Telecommunications | 0.15 | 0.13 | 0.18 | 0.00 |
| Manufacturing | −0.01 | −0.02 | 0.01 | 0.41 |
| Mining | 0.01 | −0.01 | 0.04 | 0.31 |
| Other Services | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.04 |
| Professional, Scientific and Technical Services | 0.21 | 0.20 | 0.23 | 0.00 |
| Public Administration and Safety | 0.28 | 0.26 | 0.29 | 0.00 |
| Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services | 0.31 | 0.29 | 0.34 | 0.00 |
| Retail Trade | −0.03 | −0.05 | −0.01 | 0.00 |
| Transport, Postal and Warehousing | −0.11 | −0.13 | −0.09 | 0.00 |
| Wholesale Trade | 0.10 | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.00 |
| Australian Citizen | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Bridging A | −0.18 | −0.22 | −0.15 | 0.00 |
| Bridging B | 0.08 | −0.04 | 0.19 | 0.20 |
| Skilled - Australian Linked | −0.05 | −0.11 | 0.00 | 0.07 |
| Regional Sponsored Migration Scheme | −0.01 | −0.03 | 0.00 | 0.13 |
| Employer Nomination Scheme | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.10 | 0.02 |
| Independent | −0.03 | −0.07 | 0.01 | 0.18 |
| Skill Matching | −0.16 | −0.25 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Regional Independent | −0.05 | −0.08 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| State/Territory Nominated Independent | −0.05 | −0.09 | −0.01 | 0.02 |
| Skilled-Designated Area Sponsored | −0.10 | −0.15 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Five Year Resident Return | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Independent | −0.06 | −0.08 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Sponsored | −0.07 | −0.10 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Nominated | −0.09 | −0.12 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Work (Skilled) | −0.12 | −0.16 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Graduate | −0.08 | −0.14 | −0.02 | 0.01 |
| Skilled - Regional (Provisional) | −0.22 | −0.27 | −0.18 | 0.00 |
| Skilled | −0.01 | −0.12 | 0.10 | 0.84 |
| Labour Agreement | −0.11 | −0.22 | 0.00 | 0.05 |
| Employer Nomination | 0.02 | −0.03 | 0.06 | 0.48 |
| Skilled - Independent Overseas Student | −0.09 | −0.15 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Regional | −0.21 | −0.23 | −0.19 | 0.00 |
| Natural and Physical Sciences | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Information Technology | 0.00 | −0.02 | 0.02 | 0.94 |
| Engineering and Related Technologies | −0.07 | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Architecture and Building | −0.13 | −0.15 | −0.11 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Environmental and Related Studies | −0.37 | −0.39 | −0.35 | 0.00 |
| Health | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.00 |
| Education | −0.09 | −0.10 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Management and Commerce | −0.08 | −0.10 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Society and Culture | −0.08 | −0.10 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Creative Arts | −0.27 | −0.29 | −0.25 | 0.00 |
| Food, Hospitality and Personal Services | −0.16 | −0.18 | −0.14 | 0.00 |
| Mixed Field Programmes | −0.22 | −0.33 | −0.10 | 0.00 |
| Major Cities of Australia | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Inner Regional Australia | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Outer Regional Australia | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Remote Australia | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Very Remote Australia | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.08 | 0.01 |
| Managers | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Professionals | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.00 |
| Technicians and Trades Workers | −0.70 | −0.71 | −0.69 | 0.00 |
| Community And Personal Service Workers | −0.52 | −0.53 | −0.51 | 0.00 |
| Clerical And Administrative Workers | −0.22 | −0.23 | −0.21 | 0.00 |
| Sales Workers | −0.40 | −0.41 | −0.38 | 0.00 |
| Machinery Operators and Drivers | −1.10 | −1.12 | −1.09 | 0.00 |
| Labourers | −1.11 | −1.12 | −1.09 | 0.00 |
| Postgraduate Degree | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Graduate Diploma and Graduate Certificate Level | −0.07 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Bachelor Degree Level | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Advanced Diploma and Diploma Level | −0.21 | −0.22 | −0.19 | 0.00 |
| Certificate III & IV Level | −0.43 | −0.44 | −0.42 | 0.00 |
| Secondary Education - Years 10 and above | −0.42 | −0.44 | −0.41 | 0.00 |
| Certificate I & II Level | −0.57 | −0.66 | −0.48 | 0.00 |
| Speaks English Only | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Uses other language and speaks Enlgish: Very well | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Well | −0.17 | −0.19 | −0.16 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not well | −0.30 | −0.35 | −0.24 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not at all | −0.19 | −0.44 | 0.05 | 0.12 |
| Hours Worked | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Male | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Female | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.35 |
| salary_1617 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2² | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| label | estimate | conf.low | conf.high | p.value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Accommodation and Food Services | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Administrative and Support Services | −0.02 | −0.04 | 0.00 | 0.02 |
| Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing | −0.21 | −0.24 | −0.19 | 0.00 |
| Arts and Recreation Services | −0.09 | −0.12 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Construction | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.00 |
| Education and Training | 0.17 | 0.15 | 0.19 | 0.00 |
| Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services | 0.10 | 0.07 | 0.12 | 0.00 |
| Financial and Insurance Services | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.00 |
| Health Care and Social Assistance | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.01 |
| Information Media and Telecommunications | 0.11 | 0.08 | 0.13 | 0.00 |
| Manufacturing | −0.05 | −0.07 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Mining | −0.03 | −0.06 | −0.01 | 0.01 |
| Other Services | −0.02 | −0.04 | 0.00 | 0.03 |
| Professional, Scientific and Technical Services | 0.16 | 0.15 | 0.18 | 0.00 |
| Public Administration and Safety | 0.23 | 0.21 | 0.24 | 0.00 |
| Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services | 0.24 | 0.22 | 0.27 | 0.00 |
| Retail Trade | −0.06 | −0.08 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Transport, Postal and Warehousing | −0.16 | −0.18 | −0.14 | 0.00 |
| Wholesale Trade | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.00 |
| Australian Citizen | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Bridging A | −0.20 | −0.24 | −0.16 | 0.00 |
| Bridging B | 0.02 | −0.09 | 0.14 | 0.68 |
| Skilled - Australian Linked | −0.08 | −0.14 | −0.02 | 0.01 |
| Regional Sponsored Migration Scheme | −0.02 | −0.04 | 0.00 | 0.04 |
| Employer Nomination Scheme | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.10 | 0.03 |
| Independent | −0.03 | −0.08 | 0.01 | 0.11 |
| Skill Matching | −0.21 | −0.31 | −0.11 | 0.00 |
| Regional Independent | −0.04 | −0.07 | −0.01 | 0.01 |
| State/Territory Nominated Independent | −0.05 | −0.09 | 0.00 | 0.03 |
| Skilled-Designated Area Sponsored | −0.09 | −0.14 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Five Year Resident Return | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Independent | −0.04 | −0.06 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Sponsored | −0.05 | −0.09 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Nominated | −0.09 | −0.11 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Work (Skilled) | −0.13 | −0.17 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Graduate | −0.06 | −0.12 | −0.01 | 0.03 |
| Skilled - Regional (Provisional) | −0.20 | −0.25 | −0.16 | 0.00 |
| Skilled | −0.01 | −0.12 | 0.11 | 0.91 |
| Labour Agreement | −0.14 | −0.24 | −0.03 | 0.02 |
| Employer Nomination | 0.02 | −0.02 | 0.07 | 0.30 |
| Skilled - Independent Overseas Student | −0.09 | −0.14 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Regional | −0.19 | −0.21 | −0.17 | 0.00 |
| Natural and Physical Sciences | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Information Technology | 0.00 | −0.02 | 0.02 | 0.83 |
| Engineering and Related Technologies | −0.08 | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Architecture and Building | −0.13 | −0.15 | −0.11 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Environmental and Related Studies | −0.38 | −0.40 | −0.36 | 0.00 |
| Health | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.00 |
| Education | −0.09 | −0.11 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Management and Commerce | −0.09 | −0.11 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Society and Culture | −0.09 | −0.10 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Creative Arts | −0.27 | −0.29 | −0.25 | 0.00 |
| Food, Hospitality and Personal Services | −0.17 | −0.19 | −0.16 | 0.00 |
| Mixed Field Programmes | −0.21 | −0.32 | −0.10 | 0.00 |
| Major Cities of Australia | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Inner Regional Australia | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Outer Regional Australia | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Remote Australia | −0.05 | −0.07 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Very Remote Australia | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.07 | 0.08 |
| Managers | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Professionals | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.00 |
| Technicians and Trades Workers | −0.69 | −0.70 | −0.68 | 0.00 |
| Community And Personal Service Workers | −0.50 | −0.51 | −0.49 | 0.00 |
| Clerical And Administrative Workers | −0.20 | −0.21 | −0.19 | 0.00 |
| Sales Workers | −0.36 | −0.37 | −0.35 | 0.00 |
| Machinery Operators and Drivers | −1.08 | −1.09 | −1.06 | 0.00 |
| Labourers | −1.07 | −1.08 | −1.05 | 0.00 |
| Postgraduate Degree | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Graduate Diploma and Graduate Certificate Level | −0.07 | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Bachelor Degree Level | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Advanced Diploma and Diploma Level | −0.22 | −0.23 | −0.21 | 0.00 |
| Certificate III & IV Level | −0.45 | −0.46 | −0.44 | 0.00 |
| Secondary Education - Years 10 and above | −0.44 | −0.46 | −0.42 | 0.00 |
| Certificate I & II Level | −0.63 | −0.72 | −0.54 | 0.00 |
| Speaks English Only | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Uses other language and speaks Enlgish: Very well | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Well | −0.18 | −0.20 | −0.16 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not well | −0.31 | −0.36 | −0.25 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not at all | −0.28 | −0.52 | −0.03 | 0.03 |
| Hours Worked | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Male | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Female | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.07 |
| salary_1617 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2² | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| label | estimate | conf.low | conf.high | p.value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Accommodation and Food Services | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Administrative and Support Services | −0.04 | −0.06 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing | −0.22 | −0.25 | −0.19 | 0.00 |
| Arts and Recreation Services | −0.11 | −0.13 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Construction | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.00 |
| Education and Training | 0.15 | 0.13 | 0.17 | 0.00 |
| Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services | 0.08 | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.00 |
| Financial and Insurance Services | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.03 |
| Health Care and Social Assistance | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.02 | 0.89 |
| Information Media and Telecommunications | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.12 | 0.00 |
| Manufacturing | −0.07 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Mining | −0.05 | −0.07 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Other Services | −0.03 | −0.05 | −0.01 | 0.00 |
| Professional, Scientific and Technical Services | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.16 | 0.00 |
| Public Administration and Safety | 0.21 | 0.19 | 0.22 | 0.00 |
| Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services | 0.21 | 0.18 | 0.24 | 0.00 |
| Retail Trade | −0.08 | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Transport, Postal and Warehousing | −0.17 | −0.19 | −0.15 | 0.00 |
| Wholesale Trade | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.00 |
| Australian Citizen | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Bridging A | −0.18 | −0.22 | −0.14 | 0.00 |
| Bridging B | −0.04 | −0.16 | 0.08 | 0.52 |
| Skilled - Australian Linked | −0.09 | −0.15 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Regional Sponsored Migration Scheme | −0.02 | −0.04 | 0.00 | 0.06 |
| Employer Nomination Scheme | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.10 | 0.03 |
| Independent | −0.03 | −0.07 | 0.02 | 0.23 |
| Skill Matching | −0.19 | −0.28 | −0.09 | 0.00 |
| Regional Independent | −0.04 | −0.07 | −0.01 | 0.01 |
| State/Territory Nominated Independent | −0.05 | −0.09 | −0.01 | 0.02 |
| Skilled-Designated Area Sponsored | −0.09 | −0.14 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Five Year Resident Return | −0.03 | −0.05 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Independent | −0.02 | −0.05 | 0.00 | 0.03 |
| Skilled - Sponsored | −0.06 | −0.09 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Nominated | −0.06 | −0.08 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Work (Skilled) | −0.12 | −0.16 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Graduate | −0.05 | −0.11 | 0.01 | 0.11 |
| Skilled - Regional (Provisional) | −0.22 | −0.27 | −0.18 | 0.00 |
| Skilled | −0.01 | −0.13 | 0.10 | 0.82 |
| Labour Agreement | −0.14 | −0.25 | −0.03 | 0.01 |
| Employer Nomination | 0.03 | −0.01 | 0.08 | 0.16 |
| Skilled - Independent Overseas Student | −0.09 | −0.14 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Skilled - Regional | −0.17 | −0.19 | −0.15 | 0.00 |
| Natural and Physical Sciences | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Information Technology | 0.00 | −0.02 | 0.02 | 0.71 |
| Engineering and Related Technologies | −0.08 | −0.10 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Architecture and Building | −0.14 | −0.16 | −0.12 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Environmental and Related Studies | −0.39 | −0.41 | −0.37 | 0.00 |
| Health | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.00 |
| Education | −0.10 | −0.11 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Management and Commerce | −0.09 | −0.11 | −0.08 | 0.00 |
| Society and Culture | −0.09 | −0.10 | −0.07 | 0.00 |
| Creative Arts | −0.26 | −0.28 | −0.24 | 0.00 |
| Food, Hospitality and Personal Services | −0.18 | −0.20 | −0.16 | 0.00 |
| Mixed Field Programmes | −0.24 | −0.36 | −0.13 | 0.00 |
| Major Cities of Australia | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Inner Regional Australia | −0.04 | −0.04 | −0.03 | 0.00 |
| Outer Regional Australia | −0.06 | −0.07 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Remote Australia | −0.06 | −0.08 | −0.05 | 0.00 |
| Very Remote Australia | 0.02 | −0.02 | 0.05 | 0.27 |
| Managers | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Professionals | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.00 |
| Technicians and Trades Workers | −0.69 | −0.70 | −0.68 | 0.00 |
| Community And Personal Service Workers | −0.49 | −0.50 | −0.47 | 0.00 |
| Clerical And Administrative Workers | −0.20 | −0.21 | −0.19 | 0.00 |
| Sales Workers | −0.35 | −0.36 | −0.33 | 0.00 |
| Machinery Operators and Drivers | −1.05 | −1.07 | −1.04 | 0.00 |
| Labourers | −1.04 | −1.05 | −1.02 | 0.00 |
| Postgraduate Degree | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Graduate Diploma and Graduate Certificate Level | −0.07 | −0.09 | −0.06 | 0.00 |
| Bachelor Degree Level | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
| Advanced Diploma and Diploma Level | −0.22 | −0.23 | −0.21 | 0.00 |
| Certificate III & IV Level | −0.46 | −0.47 | −0.44 | 0.00 |
| Secondary Education - Years 10 and above | −0.45 | −0.47 | −0.43 | 0.00 |
| Certificate I & II Level | −0.62 | −0.71 | −0.52 | 0.00 |
| Speaks English Only | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Uses other language and speaks Enlgish: Very well | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Well | −0.18 | −0.20 | −0.17 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not well | −0.27 | −0.33 | −0.22 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not at all | −0.23 | −0.48 | 0.02 | 0.07 |
| Hours Worked | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Male | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Female | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.00 |
| salary_1617 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2² | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 |
Temporary visa holders
Wage differentials
| label | estimate | conf.low | conf.high | p.value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Australian Citizen | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Naturalized Citizen - Primary | 2,821.41 | 2,182.87 | 3,459.95 | 0.00 |
| Naturalized Citizen - Secondary | −1,948.75 | −2,886.73 | −1,010.76 | 0.00 |
| Permanent Visa - Primary | −1,340.34 | −2,100.74 | −579.94 | 0.00 |
| Permanent Visa - Secondary | −8,134.79 | −9,629.55 | −6,640.03 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Visa - Primary | −523.49 | −1,998.45 | 951.46 | 0.49 |
| Temporary Visa - Secondary | −5,174.48 | −8,656.47 | −1,692.49 | 0.00 |
| Male | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Female | −14,991.04 | −15,348.83 | −14,633.25 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2 | 2,785.02 | 2,705.86 | 2,864.18 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2² | −29.54 | −30.47 | −28.62 | 0.00 |
| Hours Worked | 899.24 | 888.71 | 909.76 | 0.00 |
| Postgraduate Degree | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Graduate Diploma and Graduate Certificate Level | −10,228.41 | −11,040.55 | −9,416.28 | 0.00 |
| Bachelor Degree Level | −11,837.13 | −12,384.37 | −11,289.88 | 0.00 |
| Advanced Diploma and Diploma Level | −20,886.95 | −21,514.56 | −20,259.35 | 0.00 |
| Certificate III & IV Level | −26,161.28 | −26,806.79 | −25,515.77 | 0.00 |
| Secondary Education - Years 10 and above | −25,090.18 | −26,174.90 | −24,005.46 | 0.00 |
| Certificate I & II Level | −29,709.32 | −34,800.96 | −24,617.68 | 0.00 |
| Major Cities of Australia | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Inner Regional Australia | −2,780.72 | −3,246.90 | −2,314.54 | 0.00 |
| Outer Regional Australia | −3,033.49 | −3,587.83 | −2,479.14 | 0.00 |
| Remote Australia | −3,374.20 | −4,407.95 | −2,340.46 | 0.00 |
| Very Remote Australia | −1,670.25 | −3,635.66 | 295.17 | 0.10 |
| Accommodation and Food Services | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Administrative and Support Services | 4,724.93 | 3,544.00 | 5,905.87 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing | −1,260.46 | −2,760.57 | 239.64 | 0.10 |
| Arts and Recreation Services | 3,461.27 | 1,924.96 | 4,997.58 | 0.00 |
| Construction | 14,257.72 | 13,198.35 | 15,317.10 | 0.00 |
| Education and Training | 9,929.69 | 8,980.45 | 10,878.93 | 0.00 |
| Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services | 36,667.27 | 35,108.24 | 38,226.30 | 0.00 |
| Financial and Insurance Services | 24,118.23 | 22,974.82 | 25,261.64 | 0.00 |
| Health Care and Social Assistance | 8,435.13 | 7,544.24 | 9,326.02 | 0.00 |
| Information Media and Telecommunications | 16,013.87 | 14,517.43 | 17,510.32 | 0.00 |
| Manufacturing | 16,402.48 | 15,440.33 | 17,364.63 | 0.00 |
| Mining | 64,309.74 | 62,893.72 | 65,725.77 | 0.00 |
| Other Services | −37.58 | −1,130.21 | 1,055.04 | 0.95 |
| Professional, Scientific and Technical Services | 11,175.28 | 10,195.61 | 12,154.94 | 0.00 |
| Public Administration and Safety | 21,622.45 | 20,705.08 | 22,539.82 | 0.00 |
| Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services | 12,883.09 | 11,363.49 | 14,402.69 | 0.00 |
| Retail Trade | 2,090.87 | 1,119.06 | 3,062.67 | 0.00 |
| Transport, Postal and Warehousing | 20,722.09 | 19,507.14 | 21,937.04 | 0.00 |
| Wholesale Trade | 15,064.01 | 13,881.26 | 16,246.76 | 0.00 |
| Managers | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Professionals | −12,339.48 | −12,874.73 | −11,804.22 | 0.00 |
| Technicians and Trades Workers | −21,251.93 | −21,897.45 | −20,606.41 | 0.00 |
| Community And Personal Service Workers | −23,668.12 | −24,310.21 | −23,026.03 | 0.00 |
| Clerical And Administrative Workers | −24,884.83 | −25,499.44 | −24,270.21 | 0.00 |
| Sales Workers | −21,325.16 | −22,143.22 | −20,507.10 | 0.00 |
| Machinery Operators and Drivers | −32,871.75 | −33,833.05 | −31,910.45 | 0.00 |
| Labourers | −28,597.89 | −29,419.57 | −27,776.20 | 0.00 |
| Speaks English Only | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Uses other language and speaks Enlgish: Very well | −6,006.31 | −6,522.58 | −5,490.05 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Well | −13,281.81 | −14,186.36 | −12,377.26 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not well | −11,319.17 | −14,431.97 | −8,206.38 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not at all | −10,511.02 | −24,011.25 | 2,989.21 | 0.13 |
| Natural and Physical Sciences | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Information Technology | −1,021.72 | −2,146.41 | 102.96 | 0.07 |
| Engineering and Related Technologies | 6,503.29 | 5,610.80 | 7,395.78 | 0.00 |
| Architecture and Building | −2,377.90 | −3,491.62 | −1,264.17 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Environmental and Related Studies | −5,285.31 | −6,487.49 | −4,083.13 | 0.00 |
| Health | 10,759.92 | 9,878.20 | 11,641.64 | 0.00 |
| Education | −1,960.49 | −2,889.85 | −1,031.13 | 0.00 |
| Management and Commerce | 2,758.91 | 1,918.20 | 3,599.62 | 0.00 |
| Society and Culture | −112.62 | −974.18 | 748.94 | 0.80 |
| Creative Arts | −9,361.96 | −10,487.75 | −8,236.17 | 0.00 |
| Food, Hospitality and Personal Services | 1,135.27 | 89.52 | 2,181.03 | 0.03 |
| Mixed Field Programmes | 983.62 | −5,530.49 | 7,497.73 | 0.77 |
| label | estimate | conf.low | conf.high | p.value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Australian Citizen | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Naturalized Citizen - Primary | 2,818.90 | 2,140.92 | 3,496.88 | 0.00 |
| Naturalized Citizen - Secondary | −1,780.41 | −2,776.32 | −784.49 | 0.00 |
| Permanent Visa - Primary | −1,032.47 | −1,839.84 | −225.11 | 0.01 |
| Permanent Visa - Secondary | −8,029.80 | −9,616.89 | −6,442.72 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Visa - Primary | 210.87 | −1,355.18 | 1,776.93 | 0.79 |
| Temporary Visa - Secondary | −5,282.64 | −8,979.69 | −1,585.59 | 0.01 |
| Male | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Female | −16,848.78 | −17,228.67 | −16,468.89 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2 | 2,844.41 | 2,760.36 | 2,928.46 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2² | −31.46 | −32.44 | −30.47 | 0.00 |
| Hours Worked | 802.39 | 791.22 | 813.56 | 0.00 |
| Postgraduate Degree | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Graduate Diploma and Graduate Certificate Level | −11,259.54 | −12,121.83 | −10,397.24 | 0.00 |
| Bachelor Degree Level | −12,619.82 | −13,200.87 | −12,038.78 | 0.00 |
| Advanced Diploma and Diploma Level | −22,423.80 | −23,090.17 | −21,757.43 | 0.00 |
| Certificate III & IV Level | −28,244.28 | −28,929.65 | −27,558.90 | 0.00 |
| Secondary Education - Years 10 and above | −27,112.28 | −28,263.99 | −25,960.57 | 0.00 |
| Certificate I & II Level | −31,963.35 | −37,369.46 | −26,557.24 | 0.00 |
| Major Cities of Australia | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Inner Regional Australia | −2,953.40 | −3,448.38 | −2,458.42 | 0.00 |
| Outer Regional Australia | −3,174.11 | −3,762.69 | −2,585.52 | 0.00 |
| Remote Australia | −3,427.13 | −4,524.73 | −2,329.54 | 0.00 |
| Very Remote Australia | −3,217.01 | −5,303.82 | −1,130.21 | 0.00 |
| Accommodation and Food Services | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Administrative and Support Services | 5,486.68 | 4,232.81 | 6,740.56 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing | −1,565.44 | −3,158.19 | 27.32 | 0.05 |
| Arts and Recreation Services | 3,977.38 | 2,346.18 | 5,608.58 | 0.00 |
| Construction | 16,431.04 | 15,306.23 | 17,555.85 | 0.00 |
| Education and Training | 10,107.81 | 9,099.94 | 11,115.67 | 0.00 |
| Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services | 37,476.13 | 35,820.81 | 39,131.44 | 0.00 |
| Financial and Insurance Services | 24,773.69 | 23,559.66 | 25,987.72 | 0.00 |
| Health Care and Social Assistance | 7,569.61 | 6,623.70 | 8,515.53 | 0.00 |
| Information Media and Telecommunications | 14,959.52 | 13,370.65 | 16,548.39 | 0.00 |
| Manufacturing | 15,534.96 | 14,513.39 | 16,556.53 | 0.00 |
| Mining | 63,824.34 | 62,320.85 | 65,327.82 | 0.00 |
| Other Services | 225.31 | −934.80 | 1,385.42 | 0.70 |
| Professional, Scientific and Technical Services | 12,055.90 | 11,015.73 | 13,096.07 | 0.00 |
| Public Administration and Safety | 20,439.62 | 19,465.59 | 21,413.65 | 0.00 |
| Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services | 13,078.93 | 11,465.48 | 14,692.39 | 0.00 |
| Retail Trade | 1,169.84 | 138.01 | 2,201.66 | 0.03 |
| Transport, Postal and Warehousing | 21,655.25 | 20,365.26 | 22,945.24 | 0.00 |
| Wholesale Trade | 15,430.78 | 14,174.98 | 16,686.59 | 0.00 |
| Managers | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Professionals | −12,330.18 | −12,898.49 | −11,761.87 | 0.00 |
| Technicians and Trades Workers | −22,275.78 | −22,961.16 | −21,590.39 | 0.00 |
| Community And Personal Service Workers | −24,253.23 | −24,934.98 | −23,571.48 | 0.00 |
| Clerical And Administrative Workers | −25,677.30 | −26,329.88 | −25,024.72 | 0.00 |
| Sales Workers | −21,653.83 | −22,522.42 | −20,785.25 | 0.00 |
| Machinery Operators and Drivers | −33,609.49 | −34,630.17 | −32,588.82 | 0.00 |
| Labourers | −29,537.58 | −30,410.01 | −28,665.14 | 0.00 |
| Speaks English Only | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Uses other language and speaks Enlgish: Very well | −6,022.33 | −6,570.48 | −5,474.18 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Well | −14,300.44 | −15,260.85 | −13,340.02 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not well | −13,334.90 | −16,639.94 | −10,029.85 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not at all | −13,229.16 | −27,563.20 | 1,104.88 | 0.07 |
| Natural and Physical Sciences | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Information Technology | −1,298.90 | −2,493.05 | −104.75 | 0.03 |
| Engineering and Related Technologies | 7,708.26 | 6,760.65 | 8,655.87 | 0.00 |
| Architecture and Building | −1,464.21 | −2,646.72 | −281.70 | 0.02 |
| Agriculture, Environmental and Related Studies | −5,439.85 | −6,716.28 | −4,163.42 | 0.00 |
| Health | 10,360.85 | 9,424.67 | 11,297.03 | 0.00 |
| Education | −2,094.51 | −3,081.28 | −1,107.75 | 0.00 |
| Management and Commerce | 2,935.11 | 2,042.48 | 3,827.75 | 0.00 |
| Society and Culture | −96.93 | −1,011.69 | 817.84 | 0.84 |
| Creative Arts | −10,360.99 | −11,556.31 | −9,165.67 | 0.00 |
| Food, Hospitality and Personal Services | 751.02 | −359.33 | 1,861.36 | 0.18 |
| Mixed Field Programmes | 1,742.56 | −5,173.88 | 8,659.00 | 0.62 |
| label | estimate | conf.low | conf.high | p.value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Australian Citizen | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Naturalized Citizen - Primary | 2,612.93 | 1,893.35 | 3,332.50 | 0.00 |
| Naturalized Citizen - Secondary | −1,537.35 | −2,594.36 | −480.33 | 0.00 |
| Permanent Visa - Primary | −921.14 | −1,778.04 | −64.24 | 0.04 |
| Permanent Visa - Secondary | −7,940.77 | −9,625.22 | −6,256.32 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Visa - Primary | −62.25 | −1,724.38 | 1,599.89 | 0.94 |
| Temporary Visa - Secondary | −6,420.94 | −10,344.81 | −2,497.07 | 0.00 |
| Male | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Female | −18,027.05 | −18,430.25 | −17,623.85 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2 | 2,922.35 | 2,833.15 | 3,011.56 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2² | −33.92 | −34.96 | −32.87 | 0.00 |
| Hours Worked | 764.08 | 752.22 | 775.94 | 0.00 |
| Postgraduate Degree | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Graduate Diploma and Graduate Certificate Level | −11,851.24 | −12,766.43 | −10,936.04 | 0.00 |
| Bachelor Degree Level | −12,957.13 | −13,573.82 | −12,340.43 | 0.00 |
| Advanced Diploma and Diploma Level | −23,862.12 | −24,569.37 | −23,154.86 | 0.00 |
| Certificate III & IV Level | −29,934.75 | −30,662.17 | −29,207.32 | 0.00 |
| Secondary Education - Years 10 and above | −28,652.40 | −29,874.77 | −27,430.03 | 0.00 |
| Certificate I & II Level | −32,983.88 | −38,721.66 | −27,246.09 | 0.00 |
| Major Cities of Australia | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Inner Regional Australia | −3,290.24 | −3,815.58 | −2,764.90 | 0.00 |
| Outer Regional Australia | −3,627.36 | −4,252.06 | −3,002.67 | 0.00 |
| Remote Australia | −4,067.01 | −5,231.94 | −2,902.07 | 0.00 |
| Very Remote Australia | −4,479.31 | −6,694.14 | −2,264.48 | 0.00 |
| Accommodation and Food Services | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Administrative and Support Services | 5,672.48 | 4,341.68 | 7,003.28 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing | −900.25 | −2,590.73 | 790.22 | 0.30 |
| Arts and Recreation Services | 3,532.61 | 1,801.33 | 5,263.89 | 0.00 |
| Construction | 16,810.29 | 15,616.47 | 18,004.11 | 0.00 |
| Education and Training | 8,806.63 | 7,736.93 | 9,876.33 | 0.00 |
| Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services | 36,814.03 | 35,057.16 | 38,570.91 | 0.00 |
| Financial and Insurance Services | 24,449.07 | 23,160.56 | 25,737.59 | 0.00 |
| Health Care and Social Assistance | 7,332.99 | 6,329.04 | 8,336.94 | 0.00 |
| Information Media and Telecommunications | 14,274.89 | 12,588.54 | 15,961.24 | 0.00 |
| Manufacturing | 15,251.62 | 14,167.37 | 16,335.86 | 0.00 |
| Mining | 66,281.90 | 64,686.18 | 67,877.63 | 0.00 |
| Other Services | 27.65 | −1,203.63 | 1,258.93 | 0.96 |
| Professional, Scientific and Technical Services | 13,058.43 | 11,954.44 | 14,162.41 | 0.00 |
| Public Administration and Safety | 19,558.56 | 18,524.77 | 20,592.35 | 0.00 |
| Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services | 12,830.26 | 11,117.81 | 14,542.70 | 0.00 |
| Retail Trade | 765.73 | −329.40 | 1,860.86 | 0.17 |
| Transport, Postal and Warehousing | 21,553.00 | 20,183.87 | 22,922.14 | 0.00 |
| Wholesale Trade | 15,779.60 | 14,446.75 | 17,112.45 | 0.00 |
| Managers | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Professionals | −12,851.66 | −13,454.84 | −12,248.48 | 0.00 |
| Technicians and Trades Workers | −23,421.02 | −24,148.45 | −22,693.58 | 0.00 |
| Community And Personal Service Workers | −24,518.75 | −25,242.33 | −23,795.18 | 0.00 |
| Clerical And Administrative Workers | −26,242.81 | −26,935.42 | −25,550.19 | 0.00 |
| Sales Workers | −21,702.12 | −22,623.99 | −20,780.25 | 0.00 |
| Machinery Operators and Drivers | −35,167.06 | −36,250.36 | −34,083.77 | 0.00 |
| Labourers | −30,488.38 | −31,414.34 | −29,562.42 | 0.00 |
| Speaks English Only | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Uses other language and speaks Enlgish: Very well | −5,974.39 | −6,556.17 | −5,392.61 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Well | −14,659.01 | −15,678.35 | −13,639.67 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not well | −14,143.10 | −17,650.92 | −10,635.28 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not at all | −16,422.33 | −31,635.79 | −1,208.87 | 0.03 |
| Natural and Physical Sciences | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Information Technology | −493.58 | −1,760.99 | 773.83 | 0.45 |
| Engineering and Related Technologies | 8,244.81 | 7,239.06 | 9,250.55 | 0.00 |
| Architecture and Building | −1,185.29 | −2,440.35 | 69.77 | 0.06 |
| Agriculture, Environmental and Related Studies | −6,228.46 | −7,583.20 | −4,873.72 | 0.00 |
| Health | 9,629.48 | 8,635.87 | 10,623.10 | 0.00 |
| Education | −3,581.61 | −4,628.92 | −2,534.31 | 0.00 |
| Management and Commerce | 3,049.77 | 2,102.37 | 3,997.17 | 0.00 |
| Society and Culture | −120.52 | −1,091.42 | 850.37 | 0.81 |
| Creative Arts | −10,914.68 | −12,183.33 | −9,646.02 | 0.00 |
| Food, Hospitality and Personal Services | 213.44 | −965.03 | 1,391.90 | 0.72 |
| Mixed Field Programmes | 173.08 | −7,167.69 | 7,513.85 | 0.96 |
| label | estimate | conf.low | conf.high | p.value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Australian Citizen | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Naturalized Citizen - Primary | 2,775.02 | 2,008.25 | 3,541.80 | 0.00 |
| Naturalized Citizen - Secondary | −851.43 | −1,977.78 | 274.92 | 0.14 |
| Permanent Visa - Primary | −1,106.55 | −2,019.66 | −193.44 | 0.02 |
| Permanent Visa - Secondary | −7,786.79 | −9,581.74 | −5,991.84 | 0.00 |
| Temporary Visa - Primary | −2,061.28 | −3,832.45 | −290.12 | 0.02 |
| Temporary Visa - Secondary | −9,085.18 | −13,266.44 | −4,903.91 | 0.00 |
| Male | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Female | −18,897.75 | −19,327.39 | −18,468.10 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2 | 3,281.69 | 3,186.63 | 3,376.75 | 0.00 |
| AGEP, 2² | −40.12 | −41.23 | −39.00 | 0.00 |
| Hours Worked | 730.68 | 718.04 | 743.31 | 0.00 |
| Postgraduate Degree | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Graduate Diploma and Graduate Certificate Level | −13,198.33 | −14,173.56 | −12,223.10 | 0.00 |
| Bachelor Degree Level | −13,463.09 | −14,120.24 | −12,805.94 | 0.00 |
| Advanced Diploma and Diploma Level | −25,004.27 | −25,757.91 | −24,250.62 | 0.00 |
| Certificate III & IV Level | −31,515.70 | −32,290.84 | −30,740.55 | 0.00 |
| Secondary Education - Years 10 and above | −30,294.82 | −31,597.37 | −28,992.26 | 0.00 |
| Certificate I & II Level | −33,828.64 | −39,942.81 | −27,714.46 | 0.00 |
| Major Cities of Australia | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Inner Regional Australia | −3,123.36 | −3,683.17 | −2,563.55 | 0.00 |
| Outer Regional Australia | −3,248.87 | −3,914.54 | −2,583.19 | 0.00 |
| Remote Australia | −5,657.78 | −6,899.13 | −4,416.43 | 0.00 |
| Very Remote Australia | −5,626.09 | −7,986.21 | −3,265.96 | 0.00 |
| Accommodation and Food Services | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Administrative and Support Services | 7,584.91 | 6,166.81 | 9,003.00 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing | 1,070.82 | −730.55 | 2,872.19 | 0.24 |
| Arts and Recreation Services | 3,086.85 | 1,242.01 | 4,931.70 | 0.00 |
| Construction | 18,673.97 | 17,401.84 | 19,946.10 | 0.00 |
| Education and Training | 10,263.51 | 9,123.63 | 11,403.38 | 0.00 |
| Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services | 38,025.69 | 36,153.56 | 39,897.81 | 0.00 |
| Financial and Insurance Services | 25,910.90 | 24,537.86 | 27,283.93 | 0.00 |
| Health Care and Social Assistance | 8,442.86 | 7,373.06 | 9,512.67 | 0.00 |
| Information Media and Telecommunications | 14,242.09 | 12,445.11 | 16,039.06 | 0.00 |
| Manufacturing | 17,137.03 | 15,981.66 | 18,292.40 | 0.00 |
| Mining | 85,255.24 | 83,554.84 | 86,955.65 | 0.00 |
| Other Services | 1,956.61 | 644.56 | 3,268.66 | 0.00 |
| Professional, Scientific and Technical Services | 15,169.43 | 13,993.03 | 16,345.83 | 0.00 |
| Public Administration and Safety | 21,108.01 | 20,006.41 | 22,209.61 | 0.00 |
| Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services | 14,415.15 | 12,590.37 | 16,239.92 | 0.00 |
| Retail Trade | 1,862.76 | 695.79 | 3,029.72 | 0.00 |
| Transport, Postal and Warehousing | 22,677.03 | 21,218.08 | 24,135.98 | 0.00 |
| Wholesale Trade | 17,187.57 | 15,767.29 | 18,607.85 | 0.00 |
| Managers | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Professionals | −12,004.56 | −12,647.31 | −11,361.81 | 0.00 |
| Technicians and Trades Workers | −23,778.59 | −24,553.75 | −23,003.43 | 0.00 |
| Community And Personal Service Workers | −23,959.94 | −24,730.98 | −23,188.90 | 0.00 |
| Clerical And Administrative Workers | −25,292.69 | −26,030.74 | −24,554.64 | 0.00 |
| Sales Workers | −20,896.84 | −21,879.19 | −19,914.50 | 0.00 |
| Machinery Operators and Drivers | −36,366.07 | −37,520.43 | −35,211.72 | 0.00 |
| Labourers | −30,323.90 | −31,310.61 | −29,337.20 | 0.00 |
| Speaks English Only | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Uses other language and speaks Enlgish: Very well | −5,627.95 | −6,247.89 | −5,008.00 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Well | −15,316.06 | −16,402.27 | −14,229.86 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not well | −15,469.95 | −19,207.88 | −11,732.03 | 0.00 |
| Uses other language and speaks English: Not at all | −18,535.67 | −34,747.11 | −2,324.23 | 0.03 |
| Natural and Physical Sciences | 0.00 | NA | NA | NA |
| Information Technology | −172.63 | −1,523.19 | 1,177.92 | 0.80 |
| Engineering and Related Technologies | 8,047.08 | 6,975.36 | 9,118.81 | 0.00 |
| Architecture and Building | −2,122.11 | −3,459.50 | −784.72 | 0.00 |
| Agriculture, Environmental and Related Studies | −6,700.29 | −8,143.89 | −5,256.68 | 0.00 |
| Health | 8,241.16 | 7,182.37 | 9,299.95 | 0.00 |
| Education | −4,467.75 | −5,583.75 | −3,351.74 | 0.00 |
| Management and Commerce | 2,279.51 | 1,269.96 | 3,289.06 | 0.00 |
| Society and Culture | −265.83 | −1,300.41 | 768.75 | 0.61 |
| Creative Arts | −12,667.10 | −14,018.98 | −11,315.22 | 0.00 |
| Food, Hospitality and Personal Services | −1,461.93 | −2,717.70 | −206.16 | 0.02 |
| Mixed Field Programmes | 914.25 | −6,908.06 | 8,736.57 | 0.82 |
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Footnotes
The unit group is the fourth most disaggregated level of occupations, denoted by 4-digit codes.↩︎
As defined above.↩︎
We top censor at 5 years as there are insufficient data for temporary citizens to differentiate further.↩︎
Later sections use forward-looking wage data to explore (mis)match over time, taking the 2016 Census as the starting point. The same cannot be done with regard to employment rates, for which we have no annual records pertaining to migrants and citizens in the Census. A proxy indicator is therefore required, for which we selected the time (initially measured in weeks, converted to years) between the 2016 Census night and the date that the then current visa or citizenship status had been granted.↩︎
Scores range from 1 (highest qualification = postgraduate) to 8 (lowest qualification = Year 9 or below).↩︎
As determined by the number of individuals with specified non-school qualifications in the 2016 Census.↩︎
The non-school qualification Society and Culture includes: political sciences, humanities, human welfare services, behavioural sciences, law and law enforcement, language and literature studies, philosophy, economics and sport and recreation.↩︎
The balanced sample follows only individuals who were present in each of the 2016/17, 2017/18, 2018/19 and 2019/20 ATO data.↩︎