TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT(MBA)

1 INTRODUCTION

According to Edwin Flippo, “Training is the act of increasing the knowledge & skill of an employee for doing a particular job.”

As per Garry Desseler, “Training is a process of teaching new employees the basic skills to perform their jobs.”

Training and Development is a continuous process in an organization to achieve its organizational goals by improving the skills and knowledge of the employees.

The training and development function in an organization has gained a lot of importance due to advancement in technology and changes in market force.

Training is basically a systematic procedure for transferring technical know-how to the employees so as to increase their knowledge and skills for doing particular jobs.

2 Scope

The scope of training depends upon the categories of employees to be trained. As we all know that training is a continuous process and not only needed for the newly selected personnel but also for the existing personnel at all levels of the organization.

3 Objectives

The objectives of training within an organization are multifaceted, aiming to enhance individual and collective performance, improve skills, and contribute to the achievement of organizational goals. Here are some common objectives of training:

1. Skill Development:
   To enhance employees’ job-related skills and competencies, ensuring they have the necessary knowledge and abilities to perform their tasks effectively.

2. Knowledge Enhancement:
   To provide employees with updated information and insights relevant to their roles, industry trends, and organizational changes.

3. Performance Improvement:
   To improve overall job performance, productivity, and efficiency by addressing specific skill gaps and challenges faced by employees.

4. Adaptation to Technological Changes:
   To enable employees to adapt to technological advancements and changes in tools, systems, or processes within the organization.

5. Career Development:
   To prepare employees for future roles and responsibilities, fostering their career growth and progression within the organization.

6. Enhanced Employee Engagement:
   To boost employee morale, job satisfaction, and motivation by investing in their professional development and growth.

7. Improved Communication and Teamwork:
   To enhance communication skills and foster teamwork, collaboration, and a positive work culture within the organization.

8. Compliance and Regulatory Requirements:
   To ensure that employees are aware of and comply with industry regulations, legal standards, and ethical practices relevant to their roles.

9. Reduced Employee Turnover:
   To retain talented employees by providing opportunities for growth and development, thereby reducing turnover and associated recruitment costs.

10. Increased Innovation and Creativity:
    To stimulate innovation and creativity by exposing employees to new ideas, perspectives, and problem-solving approaches.

11. Alignment with Organizational Goals:
    To align individual and team goals with the broader organizational objectives, ensuring that training efforts contribute directly to the success of the organization.

12. Health and Safety:
    To educate employees on health and safety practices, reducing the risk of workplace accidents and promoting a safe working environment.

4 Beneficiaries

1. Employees:
   Improved skills, knowledge, and competencies lead to increased job performance, career development, and job satisfaction.

2. Managers and Supervisors:
   Enhanced performance and productivity of their teams, better-equipped employees, and improved leadership and management skills.

3. Organizations:
   Increased overall productivity, improved employee morale, reduced turnover, and a more skilled and adaptable workforce, leading to better achievement of organizational goals.

4. Customers:
   Improved quality of products or services, as well as enhanced customer service resulting from employees’ increased skills and knowledge.

5. Shareholders and Investors:
   Long-term benefits from increased organizational efficiency, profitability, and sustainability, driven by a skilled and high-performing workforce.

6. HR Department:
   Enhanced ability to attract, retain, and develop talent, leading to a positive impact on recruitment, retention, and succession planning.

7. Individual Teams or Departments:
   Improved team dynamics, collaboration, and effectiveness, leading to better achievement of departmental goals.

8. Trainers and Facilitators:
   Opportunities for professional development and the satisfaction of contributing to the growth and success of individuals and the organization.

5 Rationale for Training

Training is essential across various domains and contexts for several reasons:

• Skill Development: Training enables individuals to acquire new skills or enhance existing ones.
• Knowledge Transfer: Training facilitates the transfer of knowledge from experienced individuals to newcomers or from experts to novices. This ensures the continuity of expertise within an organization or community.
• Performance Improvement: Through training, individuals can improve their performance in their respective roles. This could involve learning more efficient processes, strategies, or techniques to accomplish tasks effectively.
• Adaptation to Change: Training helps individuals and organizations adapt to changes in technology, market trends, regulations, or industry standards. It equips them with the necessary tools and knowledge to stay relevant and competitive.
• Employee Engagement and Retention: Providing training opportunities demonstrates an organization’s commitment to the growth and development of its employees. This can boost morale, job satisfaction, and retention rates as employees feel valued and invested in.
• Risk Reduction: Proper training can mitigate risks associated with tasks or processes by ensuring that individuals are aware of safety protocols, compliance requirements, and best practices.
• Innovation and Creativity: Training can foster a culture of innovation and creativity by encouraging individuals to explore new ideas, experiment with different approaches, and think critically about problems.
• Customer Satisfaction: Well-trained employees are better equipped to meet customer needs, provide quality service, and handle inquiries or issues effectively, ultimately leading to higher levels of customer satisfaction.
• Organizational Growth: Continuous training contributes to the overall growth and success of an organization by fostering a knowledgeable, skilled, and adaptable workforce capable of driving innovation, productivity, and profitability.
• Legal and Ethical Compliance: Training ensures that employees understand and adhere to legal and ethical guidelines relevant to their roles and industries, reducing the risk of legal liabilities or ethical breaches.

6 Culture and Other Contexts

Training plays a crucial role in shaping and sustaining organizational culture, as well as in various other contexts beyond the workplace.

6.1 Organizational Culture:

1. Alignment with Values: Training programs can reinforce organizational values by integrating them into learning objectives and activities. This ensures that employees understand and embody the culture, leading to consistency in behavior and decision-making.
2. Behavior Modeling: Through training, employees learn not just skills but also behavioral expectations. Role-playing exercises, case studies, and simulations can exemplify desired behaviors, fostering a culture of accountability, respect, and collaboration.
3. Communication Channels: Training sessions provide opportunities for open dialogue and communication between employees and leaders. This promotes transparency, trust, and inclusivity, which are essential elements of a healthy organizational culture.
4. Recognition and Reward Systems: Training outcomes can be linked to recognition and reward systems, reinforcing desired behaviors and achievements. This further embeds cultural values and motivates employees to actively engage in learning and development.

6.2 Educational Institutions:

1. Student Development: Training programs in educational institutions aim to develop students’ academic, technical, and interpersonal skills, preparing them for future careers and personal growth.
2. Cultural Diversity: Training initiatives promote cultural sensitivity and inclusivity among students, fostering an environment where diversity is celebrated and respected.
3. Professional Development: Faculty and staff training enhances teaching methodologies, curriculum design, and administrative practices, ultimately improving the quality of education and institutional effectiveness.
4. Research and Innovation: Training in research methodologies and academic writing equips students and faculty with the skills needed to conduct impactful research and contribute to innovation within their respective fields.

6.3 Healthcare:

1. Patient Care and Safety: Training healthcare professionals on medical protocols, patient communication, and safety measures ensures high-quality care and reduces the risk of medical errors or adverse events.
2. Ethical Standards: Healthcare training includes education on ethical principles, patient confidentiality, and professional conduct, maintaining trust between healthcare providers and patients.
3. Emergency Preparedness: Regular training exercises and simulations prepare healthcare teams to respond effectively to emergencies and crises, safeguarding lives and minimizing disruptions in healthcare services.

6.4 Nonprofit and Community Organizations:

1. Mission Alignment: Training volunteers and staff members on the organization’s mission, values, and goals ensures alignment and commitment to serving the community effectively.
2. Capacity Building: Training programs strengthen the capabilities of nonprofit organizations, enabling them to better address community needs, mobilize resources, and achieve sustainable impact.
3. Advocacy and Awareness: Training initiatives educate volunteers and advocates on social issues, advocacy strategies, and effective communication techniques, empowering them to drive positive change and raise awareness within their communities.

7 Role of Trainee in Transfer of Training

1. Motivation and Engagement: Trainees play a crucial role in the transfer of training by actively engaging in the learning process and maintaining high levels of motivation. A motivated trainee is more likely to apply learned skills and knowledge in the workplace.
2. Application of Learning: Trainees need to actively apply what they have learned during the training program to their daily tasks. This includes practicing new skills and incorporating new knowledge into their work routines.
3. Feedback and Evaluation: Trainees should seek feedback on their performance post-training. This helps in identifying areas of improvement and ensures that the learned concepts are being correctly applied.
4. Continuous Learning: The transfer of training is an ongoing process. Trainees should be encouraged to continue learning and adapting to changes in the work environment to sustain the benefits of the training.

8 Problems in Transfer of Training

1. Lack of Managerial Support: If managers do not support the transfer of training, employees may face obstacles in implementing new skills or knowledge in the workplace.
2. Inadequate Training Design: If the training program is not well-designed or does not align with the actual job requirements, the transfer of learning can be compromised.
3. Limited Resources: Insufficient resources, such as time, technology, or support, can hinder the application of training in the workplace.
4. Resistance to Change: Employees may resist adopting new practices, especially if there is a cultural or organizational resistance to change.

9 Future Trends in Training

1. Technology Integration: Continued integration of technology, such as virtual reality, augmented reality, and artificial intelligence, in training programs to enhance the learning experience.
2. Personalized Learning: Customizing training programs to individual learner needs and preferences for a more personalized and effective learning experience.
3. Remote and Online Training: The increasing use of remote and online training methods, especially with the rise of remote work and global connectivity.
4. Data-Driven Training: Analyzing data to measure training effectiveness, identify gaps, and tailor future training programs for better results.

10 Training Process:

1. Identification of Training Needs: Assessing the skills and knowledge gaps within the organization.
2. Designing Training Programs: Creating training programs that address the identified needs using appropriate methods and materials.
3. Implementation: Delivering the training to the target audience, whether through workshops, online courses, or other formats.
4. Evaluation: Assessing the effectiveness of the training program in terms of learning outcomes and its impact on job performance.

11 Training Needs Assessment:

1. Organizational Analysis: Examining the overall goals and strategies of the organization to identify training needs.
2. Task Analysis: Analyzing specific job tasks and responsibilities to determine the skills and knowledge required.
3. Person Analysis: Evaluating the individual employees to identify their strengths and areas where improvement is needed.

12 Components of Training Needs Analysis:

1. Skills Assessment: Identifying the skills that employees currently possess and those needed for their roles.
2. Knowledge Assessment: Evaluating the knowledge levels of employees and determining any gaps that need to be addressed through training.
3. Performance Gaps: Identifying discrepancies between current performance and desired performance to pinpoint areas for improvement.
4. Feedback from Stakeholders: Gathering input from managers, employees, and other relevant stakeholders to understand training needs from different perspectives.

13 Sources of Data for Training Needs Analysis

Conducting a comprehensive Training Needs Analysis (TNA) requires gathering data from various sources to identify gaps in skills, knowledge, and abilities within an organization. Here are some key sources of data for Training Needs Analysis:

1. Employee Performance Reviews: Performance appraisals provide insights into individual employee performance, strengths, and areas for improvement. Managers’ feedback can help identify specific training needs for each employee.
2. Skills Inventories: Maintaining records of employees’ current skills and qualifications helps identify areas where additional training may be necessary.
3. Employee Surveys and Feedback: Surveys and feedback forms allow employees to express their perceptions of their own training needs. This method can also reveal preferences for types of training and areas where employees feel they need improvement.
4. Job Descriptions: Analyzing job descriptions and competency models helps define the skills and competencies required for different roles within the organization. This provides a foundation for identifying training needs.
5. Observation and Job Shadowing: Direct observation of employees in their work environment or job shadowing can provide insights into their day-to-day activities and reveal areas where additional training may be beneficial.
6. Customer Feedback: Customer complaints or feedback can highlight areas where employees may need additional training to meet customer expectations and improve service delivery.
7. Regulatory and Compliance Requirements: Changes in regulations or compliance standards may necessitate training to ensure that employees are up-to-date and compliant with legal requirements.
8. Industry Benchmarking: Comparing the skills and competencies of employees with industry benchmarks or best practices helps identify where your organization stands in terms of workforce capabilities.
9. Internal Reports and Records: Reviewing internal reports, such as accident reports, error reports, or quality control data, can help identify areas where training may reduce errors or improve performance.
10. Strategic Organizational Goals: Aligning training needs with the strategic goals of the organization ensures that the workforce is prepared to contribute to the overall success of the business.
11. Technological Changes: With the rapid advancement of technology, changes in systems or tools may necessitate training to ensure employees are proficient in using new technologies.
12. Employee Interviews and Focus Groups: Conducting one-on-one interviews or focus group discussions with employees can provide qualitative insights into their training needs, preferences, and concerns.
13. Benchmarking Competitors: Analyzing the training programs of competitors or industry leaders can provide insights into best practices and help identify areas where your organization may need to catch up or excel.
14. Learning Management System (LMS) Data: Utilizing data from an organization’s Learning Management System can help identify patterns of employee participation in training programs and highlight areas where more engagement is needed.

14 Needs Assessment Process

The needs assessment process is a systematic approach to identify and analyze gaps in knowledge, skills, and abilities within an organization. This process is crucial for designing and implementing effective training programs that address specific needs. The needs assessment process typically involves several key steps:

1. Define the Purpose and Objectives: Clearly define the purpose of the needs assessment. Identify the specific goals and objectives you aim to achieve through the process. This could include improving employee performance, addressing compliance issues, or adapting to changes in technology.
2. Establish a Steering Committee or Team: Form a team or committee responsible for overseeing the needs assessment process. Ensure representation from relevant departments and stakeholders to gather diverse perspectives.
3. Identify Stakeholders: Identify and involve key stakeholders who will be affected by or play a role in the training programs. This may include employees, managers, subject matter experts, and executives.
4. Conduct a Literature Review: Review existing documentation, reports, and relevant literature to understand the current state of affairs, industry benchmarks, and best practices. This helps inform the needs assessment process.
5. Determine Scope and Focus: Clearly define the scope of the needs assessment. Decide whether it will be organization-wide or focused on specific departments, teams, or roles. Identify the key areas of focus, such as technical skills, compliance, or soft skills.
6. Choose Data Collection Methods: Select appropriate methods for gathering data. Common methods include surveys, interviews, focus groups, observations, and document reviews. Choose methods that align with the goals and scope of the assessment.
7. Develop Data Collection Instruments: Design tools and instruments for data collection, such as survey questionnaires, interview guides, or observation checklists. Ensure that the questions are clear, unbiased, and aligned with the assessment goals.
8. Collect Data: Implement the chosen data collection methods to gather information. Ensure that the data collection process is systematic and reaches a representative sample of the target population.
9. Analyze Data: Analyze the collected data to identify patterns, trends, and areas of concern. Use statistical tools, qualitative analysis, or a combination of both, depending on the nature of the data.
10. Identify Training Needs: Based on the data analysis, identify specific training needs and prioritize them. Consider both individual and organizational needs, and distinguish between wants and actual needs.
11. Validate Findings: Validate the identified training needs by seeking feedback from stakeholders and subject matter experts. This ensures that the findings accurately reflect the current state of the organization.
12. Develop Recommendations: Develop recommendations for addressing the identified needs. This may involve designing training programs, modifying existing processes, or implementing other interventions.
13. Create an Action Plan: Develop a detailed action plan outlining the steps to be taken to address the identified needs. Include timelines, responsible parties, and key performance indicators to measure progress.
14. Implement Interventions: Implement the recommended interventions, which may include training programs, workshops, mentoring, or other initiatives. Monitor the effectiveness of these interventions.
15. Evaluate and Adjust: Continuously evaluate the effectiveness of the interventions and adjust the training programs as needed. Collect feedback from participants and stakeholders to inform future improvements.

15 Competency Models:

Competency models outline the skills, knowledge, abilities, and behaviors required for successful performance in a specific role or within an organization. These models are developed based on the organization’s goals, values, and strategic objectives. Competencies can be categorized into technical (job-specific) and behavioral (soft skills) competencies.

• Technical Competencies: These are the specific skills and knowledge required to perform tasks related to a particular job or profession. For example, software proficiency, engineering skills, or financial analysis.
• Behavioral Competencies: These refer to the personal attributes, traits, and behaviors that contribute to effective performance in any role. Examples include communication skills, teamwork, leadership, adaptability, and problem-solving.

Competency models serve several purposes, including:

• Recruitment and Selection: They guide the hiring process by identifying the key competencies required for a job role and assessing candidates against those competencies.
• Performance Management: Competency models are used to establish performance expectations, provide feedback, and evaluate employee performance.
• Training and Development: They help identify skill gaps and development needs, informing the design of training programs and career development initiatives.
• Succession Planning: Competency models assist in identifying high-potential employees and grooming them for future leadership roles within the organization.

16 Scope of Needs Assessment:

Needs assessment is a systematic process for identifying performance gaps and determining the training and development needs of individuals, teams, or the entire organization. The scope of needs assessment encompasses various aspects:

• Organizational Needs Assessment: This involves assessing the overall performance of the organization and identifying areas where improvements are needed to achieve strategic objectives. It may include analyzing productivity, quality, customer satisfaction, and employee turnover rates.
• Task Analysis: Task analysis focuses on identifying the specific tasks and activities involved in performing a job or completing a project. It helps determine the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform those tasks effectively.
• Individual Needs Assessment: Individual needs assessment involves evaluating the skills, knowledge, and performance of individual employees to identify areas for improvement. This may include performance reviews, skill assessments, self-assessments, and feedback from supervisors and peers.
• Environmental Analysis: Environmental analysis considers external factors that may impact organizational performance, such as changes in technology, regulations, market trends, or industry standards. Understanding these factors helps anticipate future training and development needs.

17 Learning

Learning is a complex and dynamic process that involves acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors through various experiences. It is a fundamental aspect of human development that occurs throughout one’s lifetime. Understanding how people learn has been a subject of interest for educators, psychologists, and researchers, leading to the development of various learning theories.

The process of learning involves encoding information, processing it, and storing it in memory for future use. Factors such as motivation, attention, and the context in which learning occurs can significantly impact the effectiveness of the learning process.

18 Learning Theories:

Learning theories are frameworks that attempt to explain how learning takes place and why it happens. These theories provide insights into the cognitive, emotional, and social aspects of learning. They also help understand the change in behavior as a result of practice, training, or experience.

19 Behavioral Learning

Behavioral psychology is the study of external behavior, focusing on the stimulus-response connection.

Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning involves involuntary, automatic responses. Learning occurs through the association of stimuli, leading to emotional responses like fear or joy.

Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

• Before Conditioning:
  • Unconditioned Stimulus
    
  • Unconditioned Response
    
  • Neutral Stimulus (No Response)
• During Conditioning:
  • Unconditioned Stimulus
    
  • Neutral Stimulus
    
  • Unconditioned Response
• After Conditioning:
  • Conditioned Stimulus
    
  • Conditioned Response

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Operant Conditioning involves conditioning voluntary, controllable behaviors. With Operant Conditioning, the response comes before the stimulus (the opposite of Classical Conditioning).

• Consequences for Behaviors:
  • Positive Reinforcement: Behaving in a certain way results in a reward, increasing the likelihood of repeating that behavior.
    
  • Negative Reinforcement: Behaving in a certain way results in the removal of something unpleasant, increasing the likelihood of repeating that behavior.

Jean Piaget’s Developmental Theory

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years): Infants explore the world through their senses and motor actions.
2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): Children in this stage develop symbolic thinking and language skills.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): Children become capable of more logical and organized thinking.
4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and beyond): This stage marks the ability to think critically and solve complex problems.

The Information Processing Theory (IPT)

IPT focuses on understanding the cognitive processes involved in learning, problem-solving, memory, attention, and decision-making. Here are the key components of the Information Processing Theory:

1. Sensory Memory: Sensory memory is the first stage of information processing, where sensory stimuli are briefly registered by the sensory organs (e.g., eyes, ears) and stored momentarily in their respective sensory memory stores (e.g., iconic memory for visual stimuli, echoic memory for auditory stimuli).
2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Short-term memory, also known as working memory, temporarily holds and processes information that is actively attended to. STM has limited capacity and duration, typically holding around 5-9 items for a few seconds.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Long-term memory is the permanent storage system for information that has been encoded and transferred from STM.
4. Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval: Encoding refers to the process of converting sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory. This involves selecting, organizing, and integrating information.
5. Attention: Attention is the selective focusing of mental resources on specific stimuli or tasks. Factors influencing attention include salience, relevance, novelty, and individual differences.
6. Cognitive Control Processes: Cognitive control processes, such as problem-solving, decision-making, planning, and reasoning, regulate and coordinate cognitive activities to achieve goals and solve problems.

19.1 Learning Process

Training and development involve systematic processes aimed at enhancing employee skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors within an organization. The learning process within training and development typically follows several stages:

19.1.1 Assessment and Needs Analysis:

1. Identify the skills and knowledge gaps within the organization or among specific groups of employees.
2. Determine the training needs based on job requirements, performance evaluations, feedback, or changes in technology or processes.

19.1.2 Setting Objectives:

1. Establish clear and measurable learning objectives that align with organizational goals and individual development plans.
2. Define the desired outcomes of the training program, such as increased productivity, improved quality, or enhanced customer satisfaction.

19.1.3 Designing the Training Program:

1. Develop the training content, materials, and methods based on the identified needs and objectives.
2. Select appropriate delivery methods, such as instructor-led training, e-learning modules, workshops, simulations, or on-the-job training.
3. Consider factors such as learning styles, preferences, and accessibility to ensure the effectiveness of the program.

19.1.4 Implementation:

1. Deliver the training program to the target audience using the chosen methods and resources.
2. Provide opportunities for active participation, practice, and feedback to facilitate learning.
3. Ensure that trainers are knowledgeable, skilled, and capable of engaging learners effectively.

19.1.5 Monitoring and Evaluation:

1. Assess the effectiveness of the training program during and after implementation.
2. Use various evaluation methods, such as pre and post-tests, surveys, observations, and performance metrics, to measure learning outcomes and participant satisfaction.
3. Gather feedback from participants, trainers, and stakeholders to identify areas for improvement and make necessary adjustments.

19.1.6 Follow-Up and Reinforcement:

• Provide ongoing support, coaching, and resources to reinforce learning and facilitate transfer of new skills and knowledge to the workplace.
• Encourage continuous learning and professional development through additional training opportunities, mentoring, or self-directed learning initiatives.
• Monitor performance and track progress to ensure that learning objectives are being met and organizational goals are being achieved.

19.2 Instructional Emphasis for Learning Outcomes

19.2.1 Content Clarity and Relevance:

1. Ensure that the content is clear, organized, and presented in a logical sequence.
2. Emphasize the relevance of the content to the learners’ needs, job roles, or educational goals to enhance engagement and motivation.

19.2.2 Active Learning:

1. Encourage active participation and engagement through hands-on activities, discussions, problem-solving tasks, case studies, and simulations.
2. Provide opportunities for learners to apply knowledge, practice skills, and make connections between theory and real-world situations.

19.2.3 Interactive Instruction:

1. Utilize interactive instructional methods such as group activities, peer collaboration, role-plays, and debates to foster engagement and promote deeper understanding.
2. Incorporate multimedia elements, interactive exercises, and technology-enhanced learning tools to cater to different learning styles and preferences.

19.2.4 Feedback and Assessment:

1. Provide timely and constructive feedback to guide learners’ progress, reinforce positive behaviors, and address misconceptions or gaps in understanding.
2. Use various assessment methods, including quizzes, assignments, projects, and performance evaluations, to gauge learning outcomes and identify areas for improvement.

19.2.5 Real-World Application:

1. Design learning experiences that mimic real-world scenarios and challenges to facilitate transfer of learning to practical situations.
2. Include case studies, simulations, role-plays, and authentic tasks that require learners to apply knowledge and skills in contextually relevant settings.

19.2.6 Differentiation and Personalization:

1. Recognize and accommodate diverse learning needs, preferences, and backgrounds by offering flexible learning pathways and personalized learning experiences.
2. Provide opportunities for learners to explore topics at their own pace, customize learning activities, and receive individualized support and guidance.

19.2.7 Metacognitive Strategies:

1. Foster metacognitive awareness by helping learners develop self-regulation, reflection, and problem-solving skills.
2. Encourage learners to monitor their own learning progress, set goals, identify learning strategies that work best for them, and adapt their approach based on feedback and outcomes.

19.2.8 Scaffolding and Support:

1. Provide appropriate scaffolding and support to help learners gradually build knowledge and skills, starting from their current level of understanding.
2. Offer resources, examples, prompts, and guidance to scaffold learning tasks and facilitate learners’ progression toward mastery.

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