Purpose

This research has been conducted with the goal of exploring the relationship between air pollution and asthma, taking into account how race and ethnicity affect this relationship. It will contribute to our Studio 1 project ‘Story Maps: Histories of Environmental Health in the South Bronx’, which uses oral histories to make visible/audible the individuals behind the data and statistics presented here.

Introduction & Background

The Bronx is the northernmost borough of NYC. It is a peninsula that borders the Hudson, Harlem, and East Rivers. Despite this proximity, many residents are cut off to their waterfront due to highway routes along the Bronx’s borders.

The South Bronx is a neighborhood that includes communities south of the Cross-Bronx Expressway and west of the Bronx River. Mott Haven and Port Morris are the two main neighborhoods of the South Bronx, with the former also being known by the alias “Asthma Alley.” (2)

My research contributes to that of Soraya Barar and Rhaynae Lloyd in demonstrating how racist housing policies, zoning laws, and disinvestment in public space have resulted in negative environmental health outcomes for South Bronx Residents.

Historical Context

Construction of the Cross Bronx Expressway was built under the rule of Robert Moses starting in 1948. More than 60,000 people were directly displaced by its construction - the most of any single infrastructure project in American history.(3) The resulting reduction in property value and the lure of suburbia resulted in white flight. 

Black and brown residents remained in the Bronx, their mobility constrained by redlining and racist housing policies. Disinvestment in the Bronx, particularly the South Bronx, is exemplified by the 1970s ‘Decade of Fire,’ in which the flames of arson, orchestrated by money-grabbing landlords, were a visual symbol of the city’s intentional neglect of low-income neighborhoods of color. At this point in time, roughly 220,000 Bronx residents - mostly people of color (4) - live along the roadway’s edges with hundreds of thousands more nearby.


Race and Pollution Disparities

A study and report by Christopher W. Tessum revealing the racial disparities between pollution exposure and the consumption of goods and services within the United States reflects the situation in the South Bronx. The study uses data to examine the environmental health impact and burden placed on communities of color that is disproportionately created by white people. It reveals that black Americans are exposed to 56% more pollution than they cause and Hispanics are exposed to 63% more pollution than they cause. However, non-Hispanic white people are exposed to 17% less pollution than they cause this is what the study defines as a “pollution advantage”.(5)

Some of the main polluters in the South Bronx include:

Fresh Direct: In 2018, a $130 million taxpayer subsidy relocated the company’s operations to 94 acres of public land in the South Bronx, despite many community-led attempts to block the move.(8)  Fresh Direct is one of the main companies with diesel trucking operations in the South Bronx and its presence is a prime example of pollution disadvantage; while it doesn’t serve the South Bronx community, which is majority low-income and unlikely to use, a study conducted from June 2017 to May 2020 revealed an overall traffic between 10 and 40 percent, especially during overnight hours.(6) 


Four Peaker Plants that were built in the South Bronx in 2001. Peaker plants emit “over twice the carbon dioxide per unit of electricity and nearly 20 times the level of nitrogen oxide than standard power plants.” (Congressman Richie Torres, NY-15)(9)


Waste Transfer stations, which are disproportionately located in the South Bronx due to the historical zoning laws that made it a manufacturing region. The area accommodates 24% of the city’s waste transfer stations and handles 31% of NYC’s solid waste, despite housing approximately 6,5% of NYC’s population. Their presence causes increased truck traffic and pollution, increased dust, as well as odors that make outdoor activities unpleasant for residents.(10) 


The MTA Congestion Pricing Proposal, which would divert traffic from wealthy and tourist-laden areas in midtown but would add up to 704 more trucks to the Cross Bronx Expressway, increasing soot from traffic by five percent and overall soot by one percent.(11)


Pollution and Asthma

According to the National Institute of Health:

“Asthma is a chronic (long-term) condition that affects the airways in the lungs. The airways are tubes that carry air in and out of your lungs. If you have asthma, the airways can become inflamed and narrowed at times. This makes it harder for air to flow out of your airways when you breathe out.”

Asthma often develops during childhood, when the respiratory system is still developing and more time is spent outdoors.(12) 

While the relationship between air pollution and asthma is not fully understood, evidence implies that air pollution can suppress the immune system’s ability to differentiate harmless allergens from dangerous viruses or bacteria, causing an inflammatory response when it is not necessary. 

According to the EPA, both Nitrogen Dioxide and PM 2.5 pollution come from fuel combustion. Therefore, they are useful concentrations to observe when exploring the relationship between air pollution and asthma. However, there are many more air pollutants such as carbon monoxide, lead, ground-level ozone, and sulfur oxides and as such, this analysis cannot be considered comprehensive so much as indicative.

Previous data analysis and visualization I have done shows that the Bronx has the highest rate of asthma hospitalization of all the boroughs and that there is a strong positive correlation between poverty rate and asthma hospitalization rate. I will explore this further in this research paper, looking closely at the South Bronx.

Introduction to Data

The primary data used in this research paper is:

Air Pollution by NYC Borough & Neighborhood:

Nitrogen Oxide and Fine Particulate Matter

BOROUGH Neighborhood Time Frame mean no2 ppb mean PM 2.5 mcg/m3 geometry
Bronx Kingsbridge - Riverdale Winter 2018-19 18.32 7.18 MULTIPOLYGON (((1017993 269…
Bronx Northeast Bronx Winter 2018-19 19.11 7.19 MULTIPOLYGON (((1025013 270…
Bronx Fordham - Bronx Park Winter 2018-19 19.92 7.20 MULTIPOLYGON (((1023994 261…
Bronx Pelham - Throgs Neck Winter 2018-19 20.36 7.31 MULTIPOLYGON (((1017075 237…
Bronx Crotona - Tremont Winter 2018-19 22.62 7.89 MULTIPOLYGON (((1007916 252…
Bronx High Bridge - Morrisania Winter 2018-19 23.89 7.75 MULTIPOLYGON (((1007937 247…
Bronx Hunts Point - Mott Haven Winter 2018-19 24.22 8.03 MULTIPOLYGON (((1014093 243…
Brooklyn Greenpoint Winter 2018-19 26.69 9.24 MULTIPOLYGON (((1005218 199…
Brooklyn Downtown - Heights - Slope Winter 2018-19 24.83 8.15 MULTIPOLYGON (((992507 1967…
Brooklyn Bedford Stuyvesant - Crown Heights Winter 2018-19 23.23 7.23 MULTIPOLYGON (((999487 1903…
Brooklyn East New York Winter 2018-19 21.57 7.15 MULTIPOLYGON (((1021274 188…
Brooklyn Sunset Park Winter 2018-19 23.31 7.97 MULTIPOLYGON (((984461.1 18…
Brooklyn Borough Park Winter 2018-19 21.76 6.93 MULTIPOLYGON (((991522 1784…
Brooklyn East Flatbush - Flatbush Winter 2018-19 21.71 6.91 MULTIPOLYGON (((994544 1811…
Brooklyn Canarsie - Flatlands Winter 2018-19 18.66 6.74 MULTIPOLYGON (((1012386 178…
Brooklyn Bensonhurst - Bay Ridge Winter 2018-19 20.53 6.85 MULTIPOLYGON (((979546 1690…
Brooklyn Coney Island - Sheepshead Bay Winter 2018-19 18.52 6.69 MULTIPOLYGON (((1001091 161…
Brooklyn Williamsburg - Bushwick Winter 2018-19 25.25 8.10 MULTIPOLYGON (((1004673 199…
Manhattan Washington Heights - Inwood Winter 2018-19 22.24 7.76 MULTIPOLYGON (((1005425 249…
Manhattan Central Harlem - Morningside Heights Winter 2018-19 24.69 7.59 MULTIPOLYGON (((1002429 239…
Manhattan East Harlem Winter 2018-19 24.44 7.79 MULTIPOLYGON (((1006592 230…
Manhattan Upper West Side Winter 2018-19 25.25 8.16 MULTIPOLYGON (((993981 2331…
Manhattan Upper East Side Winter 2018-19 26.49 8.96 MULTIPOLYGON (((995360 2127…
Manhattan Chelsea - Clinton Winter 2018-19 29.47 11.75 MULTIPOLYGON (((986095 2208…
Manhattan Gramercy Park - Murray Hill Winter 2018-19 29.66 11.66 MULTIPOLYGON (((994255.8 21…
Manhattan Greenwich Village - Soho Winter 2018-19 27.47 11.04 MULTIPOLYGON (((980850.7 20…
Manhattan Union Square - Lower East Side Winter 2018-19 25.90 10.08 MULTIPOLYGON (((987086 2085…
Manhattan Lower Manhattan Winter 2018-19 27.74 9.29 MULTIPOLYGON (((979738.9 19…
Queens Long Island City - Astoria Winter 2018-19 25.70 8.62 MULTIPOLYGON (((1010874 223…
Queens West Queens Winter 2018-19 24.36 8.01 MULTIPOLYGON (((1015258 219…
Queens Flushing - Clearview Winter 2018-19 21.25 7.24 MULTIPOLYGON (((1028750 218…
Queens Bayside - Little Neck Winter 2018-19 18.18 6.92 MULTIPOLYGON (((1057652 221…
Queens Ridgewood - Forest Hills Winter 2018-19 22.03 7.17 MULTIPOLYGON (((1027433 206…
Queens Fresh Meadows Winter 2018-19 20.31 6.83 MULTIPOLYGON (((1045675 212…
Queens Southwest Queens Winter 2018-19 20.41 6.86 MULTIPOLYGON (((1024165 176…
Queens Jamaica Winter 2018-19 19.86 6.93 MULTIPOLYGON (((1051427 176…
Queens Southeast Queens Winter 2018-19 17.99 6.73 MULTIPOLYGON (((1063634 216…
Queens Rockaway Winter 2018-19 13.95 6.28 MULTIPOLYGON (((1048935 163…
Staten Island Stapleton - St. George Winter 2018-19 17.83 6.44 MULTIPOLYGON (((962625.5 17…
Staten Island Willowbrook Winter 2018-19 16.55 6.53 MULTIPOLYGON (((928508.2 16…
Staten Island South Beach - Tottenville Winter 2018-19 14.25 6.43 MULTIPOLYGON (((927254.1 14…

^ NB. I chose Winter 2018-19 as all South Bronx neighborhoods were accounted for during this time frame in the raw data set and it preceded Covid-19, ensuring data is not skewed as a result.

Figure 1 & 2: NYC, PM 2.5 Pollution & Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution per UHF42 Neighborhood

Analysis:

I was surprised to see that concentrations of both pollutants are highest in Chelsea-Clinton & Gramercy Park - Murray Hill. However, this does not take into account construction activity that may have taken place during this time. Nevertheless, there is a high rate of both pollutants in the South Bronx. To focus more on the disparities within the Bronx, I filtered the data frame so it was only for Bronx neighborhoods.

Figure 3 & 4: Bronx, PM 2.5 Pollution & Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution per UHF42 Neighborhood

Analysis:

Here you can see that the South Bronx neighborhoods of Hunts Point - Mott Haven and Highbridge-Morrisania are far more polluted than the eastern, northern, and western parts.

Race, Ethnicity & Pollution by NYC Borough & Neighborhood

While some race and ethnicity data from the Decennial Census is missing for certain neighborhoods, it is still valuable and worth exploring.

Neighborhood Percent Latinx Percent White Percent BIPOC mean no2 ppb mean PM 2.5 mcg/m3 Estimated annual rate per 10,000 Number
Bayside - Little Neck 0.1176875 0.3682187 0.6317812 18.18 6.92 4.2 32
Bedford Stuyvesant - Crown Heights 0.1496374 0.2061319 0.7938681 23.23 7.23 89.6 2485
Bensonhurst - Bay Ridge NaN NaN NaN 20.53 6.85 9.9 171
Borough Park 0.1267111 0.5526556 0.4473444 21.76 6.93 10.2 249
Canarsie - Flatlands NaN NaN NaN 18.66 6.74 50.6 850
Central Harlem - Morningside Heights 0.2364706 0.1965294 0.8034706 24.69 7.59 126.3 1915
Chelsea - Clinton 0.1709250 0.4960250 0.5039750 29.47 11.75 30.9 462
Coney Island - Sheepshead Bay 0.1160562 0.5814494 0.4185506 18.52 6.69 21.8 527
Crotona - Tremont 0.6299434 0.0209623 0.9790377 22.62 7.89 130.0 2046
Downtown - Heights - Slope NaN NaN NaN 24.83 8.15 31.8 719
East Flatbush - Flatbush 0.1073737 0.1812727 0.8187273 21.71 6.91 55.4 1350
East Harlem 0.4285217 0.1792609 0.8207391 24.44 7.79 147.5 1360
East New York NaN NaN NaN 21.57 7.15 94.3 1424
Flushing - Clearview NaN NaN NaN 21.25 7.24 9.3 204
Fordham - Bronx Park 0.5770667 0.0664333 0.9335667 19.92 7.20 76.3 1550
Fresh Meadows 0.1433462 0.2937692 0.7062308 20.31 6.83 16.2 131
Gramercy Park - Murray Hill NaN NaN NaN 29.66 11.66 12.5 161
Greenpoint NaN NaN NaN 26.69 9.24 21.3 247
Greenwich Village - Soho 0.0750556 0.6821667 0.3178333 27.47 11.04 10.8 80
High Bridge - Morrisania 0.6229111 0.0214000 0.9786000 23.89 7.75 151.9 2454
Hunts Point - Mott Haven NaN NaN NaN 24.22 8.03 150.0 1552
Jamaica 0.1667064 0.0657615 0.9342385 19.86 6.93 45.3 1191
Kingsbridge - Riverdale 0.4381034 0.3553103 0.6446897 18.32 7.18 24.7 189
Long Island City - Astoria NaN NaN NaN 25.70 8.62 24.1 434
Lower Manhattan 0.1596429 0.4115714 0.5884286 27.74 9.29 20.9 117
Northeast Bronx 0.2646875 0.1240312 0.8759687 19.11 7.19 62.6 1039
Pelham - Throgs Neck NaN NaN NaN 20.36 7.31 65.3 1554
Ridgewood - Forest Hills NaN NaN NaN 22.03 7.17 17.4 382
Rockaway NaN NaN NaN 13.95 6.28 60.6 625
South Beach - Tottenville 0.1169524 0.7468333 0.2531667 14.25 6.43 13.1 207
Southeast Queens NaN NaN NaN 17.99 6.73 25.0 451
Southwest Queens NaN NaN NaN 20.41 6.86 26.1 586
Stapleton - St. George 0.2430909 0.4305909 0.5694091 17.83 6.44 51.4 523
Sunset Park NaN NaN NaN 23.31 7.97 25.5 245
Union Square - Lower East Side 0.2170286 0.4449143 0.5550857 25.90 10.08 37.0 633
Upper East Side 0.0782143 0.7330000 0.2670000 26.49 8.96 10.4 199
Upper West Side 0.1412258 0.6208710 0.3791290 25.25 8.16 20.7 404
Washington Heights - Inwood 0.5584878 0.2265366 0.7734634 22.24 7.76 31.1 704
West Queens NaN NaN NaN 24.36 8.01 18.5 698
Williamsburg - Bushwick 0.3900364 0.2714364 0.7285636 25.25 8.10 85.3 1499
Willowbrook 0.1802308 0.5588846 0.4411154 16.55 6.53 20.7 156

Figure 5: NYC Emergency Visits for Asthma, Park and Truck Route Data Mapped (with Air Pollution Concentration & Race Data)

Analysis:

Observing this map, it seems that the concentration of multi-lane highways and trucking routes, high pollution concentration, a dearth of ‘green’ parks, and a high percentage of BIPOC residents in the South Bronx intersect with the high rate of emergency department visits for asthma in the area. This is made more stark in the below map.

Figure 6: Bronx Emergency Visits for Asthma, Park and Truck Route Data Mapped (with Air Pollution Concentration & Race Data)

NB. While the parks are colored green, many in the South Bronx are in fact concrete and therefore lack the green vegetation that is known to clean the air. It is also worth considering accessibility to parks via public transport.

Figure 6: Scatter Plot

In order to highlight the role of race in health outcomes, I created these two scatter plots. While amounts of pollution are higher in some places with low asthma hospitalization rates, there is an undeniable correlation between pollution and asthma in BIPOC neighborhoods.

Discussion

The above data analysis demonstrates the role of race (and tangentially poverty) in health outcomes, specifically focused on environmental health. While I was surprised to see wealthier Manhattan neighborhoods exhibit higher amounts of NO2 and PM 2.5 pollution than some in the South Bronx, it is crucial to recognize many factors contributing to environmental health outcomes have either not been included or require further nuance. For example, mapping shows more small parks across the South Bronx than some parts of lower Manhattan, however empirical evidence shows the former have limited tree coverage and greenery and thus have little impact in cleaning the air for residents. This could be one explanation why asthma rates are disproportionately higher in the South Bronx. Better understanding how a complex set of factors intersect to produce such high asthma rates in the South Bronx is necessary to adequately approach this issue.

Next Steps

As mentioned above, further exploration of the relationship between income, race, and environmental health outcomes is necessary in order for the issue to be addressed effectively.

From a Data Research perspective I would look further at:

  • Poverty rates across NYC neighborhoods

  • More detail on race data (i.e. filling in NA variables)

  • Green coverage across the city

  • Access to public space (by means of transport etc.)

  • Amount of other pollutants across NYC neighborhoods

As per our STUDIO 1 project, I also believe empirical data is critical in developing a more rich and nuanced understanding of the issue. I would therefore continue to collect qualitative data from the perspective of those impacted by environmental racism in the South Bronx.

Methods Appendix

This study utilizes data from:

  • Air Quality Data provided by the Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (DOHMH) and owned by NYC OpenData

  • United Hospital Fund neighborhood data, which is similar to NYC’s community district data and provided the option to split the Bronx up into multiple neighbourhoods. It also was a geographical boundary that was used for the aforementioned pollution data. 

  • I also added Truck Routes and Park Property data identifying property managed partially or solely by NYC Parks. Both data sets are from NYC Open Data and add some context to the above data with regards to air pollution concentration and asthma rates.

  • Decennial Census Data 2020, which counts every resident of the country every ten years and is a count of citizens rather than residents, which is important to note as it will include undocumented migrants, likely increasing the accuracy of race and ethnicity percentages. For racial demographic analysis, this study used the decennial census. The percent BIPOC was calculated for each census tract. It was then added together and summarized in order to estimate percentages for UHF42 neighborhoods.  

Citations:

  1. Partida, R. (2023, December 11). The South Bronx’s economy grows amid challenges. Mott Haven Herald. http://motthavenherald.com/2023/11/29/the-south-bronxs-economy-grows-amid-challenges/ 

  2.  Scientists and community leaders seek to clear the air in the South Bronx. Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health. (2023, October 3). https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/news/scientists-community-leaders-seek-clear-air-south-bronx 

  3. The cross bronx expressway. SEGREGATION BY DESIGN. (n.d.). https://www.segregationbydesign.com/the-bronx/the-cross-bronx-expressway 

  4. Plan to transform the cross bronx expressway gains momentum. Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health. (2022, October 3). https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/public-health-now/news/plan-transform-cross-bronx-expressway-gains-momentum 

  5.  Tessum, C.W.; Apte, J.S.; Goodkind, A.L.; Muller, N.Z.; Mullins, K.A.; Paolella, D.A.; Polasky, S.; Springer, N.P.; Thakrar, S.K.; Marshall, J.D.; et al. Inequity in Consumption of Goods and Services Adds to Racial–Ethnic Disparities in Air Pollution Exposure. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2019

  6. https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/news/grocery-depot-brings-increased-traffic-south-bronx

  7. Public health equity. SOUTH BRONX UNITE. (n.d.). https://www.southbronxunite.org/public-health-equity 

  8. https://www.southbronxunite.org/campaign-against-fresh-direct

  9. https://www.nyc.gov/assets/bronxcb1/pdf/notices/SouthBronxUnitePressConference3.6.22.pdf

  10. https://www.icisnyu.org/south_bronx/wastetransferstations_000.html

  11. https://www.southbronxunite.org/public-policy-legislative-organizing

  12. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/asthma