Archaeology of Europe WK12

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.double[.large[**Archaeology of Europe**]] <br>
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.double.white[Hallstatt Culture]
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.double[Central Iron Age Chronology] 
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.double[Hallstatt Culture  .yellow[*c.* 900 - 450 BC]] 
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.double[First Phase of Iron Age]
- .large[Derived from local Urnfield Culture]
 - .large[Traces of local bronze age culture]
 - .large[Change in burial practices]
 - .large[Indication of more complex social stratification<br> - regional princes &rarr; elite warrior class]

- .large[Iron weaponry and horse gears]
 - .large[Horses and Chariots - influences from the East]
 - .large[Distinctive weaponry set<br> - Lack of bow and arrows]

- .large[Herding became the dominating part of economy]

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.double[Hallstatt Site, Austria] 
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.content-box-s-white.dark.small[Image from Fera, 2019]
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.double[Hallstatt Site - Type Site]
- .large[.yellow[*c.* 1200 - 500 BC] (late Bronze Age to Iron Age)]
- .large[Further divided into 4 different phases]
 - .large[HaA and HaB - late Bronze Age]
 - .large[HaC and HaD - Iron Age]

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.double[Hallstatt Site, Austria] 
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.content-box-s-white.dark.small[Image from www.salzwelten.at]
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.double[Hallstatt Site - Salt mining centre]

<img src="data:image/png;base64,#./WK12/salt_mine.jpg" width="35%" style='float:right' />
- .large[*Halite*, rock salt]
 - .large[Functions of salt <br> - preservation of foods <br> - meat and fish]

- .large[Salt as important commodities]
 - .large[Salt Roads - Roman Road System]
 - .large[Might be more than just add flavour and preservation<br> - Medical uses <br> - religious]

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.double[Hallstatt Site, Austria] 
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.content-box-s-white.dark.small[Image from Wiki]
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.double[Hallstatt Site - Funerary Practice]
- .large[Discovered by local in 1846]
 - .large[Johann Georg Ramsauer]
 - .large[Burials above town]
 - .large[Excavation led to 1045 burials <br> - all ages and sexes]

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.double[Hallstatt Site, Austria] 
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.content-box-s-white.dark.small[Image from Wiki]
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.double[Hallstatt Site - Funerary Practice]
- .large[Both Inhumation and Cremation were practices]
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<img src="data:image/png;base64,#./WK12/Hallstatt_culture_graves.jpg" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />

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.double[Hallstatt Site, Austria] 
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.double[Hallstatt Site - Funerary Practice]
- .large[Majority of the burials - HaC and HaD]
 - .large[.yellow[*c.* 800 - 450 BC]]
 - .large[Over half (~55%) are inhumation]

- .large[Grave goods are common]
 - .large[Weapons, personal adornment (glass, and amber)]
 - .large[large bronze vessels, pottery]
 - .large[More goods in the cremated <br> - burial goods place on top of cremations]
 - .large[Swords in both male and female <br> - about &frac14; are male (interpreted as warrior graves)]

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.double[Hallstatt Site, Austria] 
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.double[Hallstatt Site - Nature of the site]
- .large[Settlement area is not found]
 - .large[No notable fortifications]
 - .large[Old mining shaft]
 - .large[Textile, leathers, wooden tools]

- .large[No "princely" burials after HaC .yellow[(800 BC)]]
 - .large[Swords - both Bronze and Iron]
 - .large[Long swords in HaC, short swords(dagger) in HaD]
 - .large[Inhumation replacing cremations]

- .large[Site abandoned around 500 BC]
 - .large[No records in Middle Ages]
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.double[Hochdorf Site, Germany] 
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.double[*Prince's Seat* in Hallstatt Culture]

- .large[Hilltop fortification for regional ruling elite]
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.double[Hochdorf Site, Germany] 
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.double[*Prince's Seat* in Hallstatt Culture]
- .large[Hillfort of Regional Rulers]
 - .large[Residential area of the elites]
 - .large[Political, Economic, Military Centres]
 - .large[Referred as .dotted[*Oppida*] by the Romans]

- .large[Large Tumuli / Burial Mounds]
 - .large[Most were looted]

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.double[Hochdorf Site, Germany] 
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.double[The tomb at Hochdorf, .yellow[*c.* 530 BC]]
 - .large[Intact Burial Mound]
 - .large[The height reduced to 1.5m (originally 6 - 8m)]

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.double[Hochdorf Site, Germany] 
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.content-box-s-white.dark.small[Image from Oestigaard & Goldhahn, 2006]
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.content-box-s-white.dark.small[Image from Biel, 1981]
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.double[The tomb at Hochdorf, .yellow[*c.* 530 BC]]
 - .large[Single Burial with rich burial goods (Male, 50 yrs, 180cm)]
  - .large[Bronze sofa (with wheels), weaponry and ornaments]
  - .large[Bronze cauldron with 400l of mead]
  - .large[Weagon with iron plates loaded with bronze discs]
  
<img src="data:image/png;base64,#./WK12/hochdorf_plan.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />

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.double[Hochdorf Site, Germany] 
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.content-box-s-white.dark.small[Image from Wiki]
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.double[The tomb at Hochdorf, .yellow[*c.* 530 BC]]

- .large[Settlement site found during the construction of the museum. (1990s)]

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.double[Heuneburg Site, Germany] 
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.small.dark.wavy[Hallstatt Site]
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.small.dark.wavy[Heuneburg Site]
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.double[Iron Age Hillfort Site, .yellow[*c.* 700 - 400 BC]]
- .large[Locate on top of hill next to the river Danube]
 - .large[300 x 150m of fortified citadel]
 - .large[Might be .yellow[*Pyrene*] mentioned by *Herodotus*]

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.double[Heuneburg Site, Germany] 
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.content-box-s-white.dark.small[Image from Wiki]
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.double[Iron Age Hillfort Site, .yellow[*c.* 700 - 400 BC]]
- .large[Fortification constructed around 700 BC]
 - .large[Using wood-and-earth wall (*murus gallicus*)]
 - .large[Several changing and remodeling<br> - Using limestone foundation <br> - Imitating Mediterranean walls]
  - .large[Burnt down around .yellow[530 BC]<br> - Rebuild with *murus gallicus*]
  
<img src="data:image/png;base64,#./WK12/murus_gallicus.gif" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />

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.double[Heuneburg Site, Germany] 
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.content-box-s-white.dark.small[Image from Wiki]
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.double[Iron Age Hillfort Site, .yellow[*c.* 700 - 400 BC]]
- .large[Planned streets and houses in citadel]
 - .large[Larger houses structures <br> - Single largest house in southeast corner]
 - .large[Centralized productions - workshops]

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.double[Heuneburg Site, Germany] 
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.content-box-s-white.dark.small[Image from Wiki]
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.double[Iron Age Hillfort Site, .yellow[*c.* 700 - 400 BC]]
- .large[Outside of hillfort]
<img src="data:image/png;base64,#./WK12/Heuneburg_map.png" width="59%" style='float:right' />
 - .large[Lower Town <br> - Dense occupied<br> - Highly fortified]

- .large[Outside settlement<br> - Fenced/Palisaded <br> -Farmsteads]

- .large[Might extended to nearby fortified settlements]

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.double[Heuneburg Site, Germany] 
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.content-box-s-white.dark.small[Image from *Garstki et al.*, 2015]
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.double[Iron Age Hillfort Site, .yellow[*c.* 700 - 400 BC]]
- .large[The Cemetery -  Gießübel-Talhau cemetery]
 - .large[Series of Tumuli/Burial Mounts]
 - .large[In outside settlements (abandoned .yellow[*c.* 600 BC])]

- .large[Less "Weaponized" than Hallstatt]
<img src="data:image/png;base64,#./WK12/tumuli.png" width="55%" style='float:right' />
 - .large[Less cremations(?)]
 - .large[More gold objects]
 - .large[More steppe aspects]
 - .large[Horse gear]
 - .large[Iron Arrowheads]
 - .large[Wooden Weagons]

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.double[Reconsidering Hallstatt Society] 
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.double[Social-Political Evolution as oneway path?]
- .large[Under-estimate of population / political / economic complexity of early Iron Age (central) Europe]
 - .large[More than .content-box-s-yellow.dark[Chiefdom], not yet .content-box-s-yellow.dark[State] level society]
 - .large[Network of local and regional groups]

- .large[Heuneburg Hillfort and outer settlements]
 - .large[Hundreds of Hectares]
 - .large[Several thousands in population]
 - .large[Abandoned without clear explanations]

- .large[What are the possible causes for the rise and fall?]