STM1001 Topic 2B Readings

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# STM1001 [Topic 2B](https://bookdown.org/a_shaker/STM1001_Topic_2B_Sci/) Lecture
## Research Questions and Ethics
### La Trobe University
This presentation complements the [Topic 2B readings](https://bookdown.org/a_shaker/STM1001_Topic_2B_Sci/)

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# Topic 2B: Research Questions and Ethics

## In this week's readings:

* we will begin by learning about research questions,
* we will discuss some important considerations regarding ethics in research.

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# Introduction

In research, asking clear and answerable research questions (RQs) is important. The data (evidence) that must be collected depends on the RQ.

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***The RQ drives all other aspects of the research***
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<img src="data:image/png;base64,#images/capture.jpg" width="35%" height="20%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
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Defining the RQ precisely can be challenging. Studies often have an overall, broad research goal with many sub-questions (which may be quantitative or qualitative).
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# Conceptual and operational definitions

* Research studies usually include terms that must be carefully and precisely defined, so that others know exactly what has been done and there are no ambiguities.

* Two types of definitions can be given:

***Definition 1.1 (Conceptual definition)*** A *conceptual definition* articulates *what* exactly is to be measured or observed in a study.

***Definition 1.2 (Operational definition)*** An *operational definition* articulates *how* to capture (identify, create, measure, assess etc.) the value.

***Example (Operational and conceptual definitions)***

* Consider a study requiring water temperature to be measured. An **operational definition** would explain **how** the temperature is measured: the thermometer type, how the thermometer was positioned, how long was it left in the water, and so on.

* By contrast, a **conceptual definition** might describe the scientific definition of temperature.

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# Elements of RQs

A RQ must be written carefully so it can be properly answered. In this section, the four potential components of a RQ are studied:

* The Population;
* The Outcome;
* The Comparison or Connection;
* The Intervention.

These form the POCI acronym.

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#The Population

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***Definition 1.3 (Population)*** The *population* is the group of individuals (or *cases*; or *subjects* if the individuals are people) from which the total set of observations of interest could be made, and to which the results will (hopefully) generalise.]
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The population in a RQ is not just those we end up studying. It is the whole group to which our results would generalise.

Similarly, population does not just mean people. In this context, a population is any group of interest; for example:

* all Australian males between 18 and 35 years of age.
* all bamboo flooring materials manufactured in Queensland.

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# The Outcome

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***Definition 1.4 (Outcome)*** The *outcome* in a RQ is the result, output, consequence or effect of interest in a study, numerically summarising the population (or subsets of the population).]
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The outcome may be (for example):

* **average** increase in heart rates,
* **average** amount of wear after 1000 hours of use,
* **proportion** of people whose pupils dilate,
* **average** weight loss after three weeks.

The outcome in a RQ summarises a population; it does not describe the individuals in the population.

Notice that each of the example outcomes above include a numerical summary (either **average** or **proportion**)

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# The Comparison or Connection

***Definition 1.5 (Comparison)*** The *comparison* in the RQ identifies the small number of different, distinct subsets of the population between which the outcome is being compared. The groups being compared have either *imposed* differences, or have *existing* differences.

The outcome may be compared between two or more separate subsets of the population.

* Average amount of wear in floor boards (O) could be compared across two groups in the population: standard wooden flooring materials and bamboo flooring.
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***Definition 1.6 (Connection)*** The *connection* in the RQ identifies another quantity of interest that varies, that may be related to the outcome.

As the value of the connection changes, the value of the outcome (potentially) changes:

* The connection between average heart rate (O) and exposure to various doses of caffeine (C) in mg

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# The Intervention

In addition to having a population (P), an outcome (O), and possibly a connection or comparison (C), some RQs also have an *intervention*.

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***Definition 1.7 (Intervention)*** An *intervention* is a comparison or connection that the researchers have *imposed* upon those in the study, *intending* to change the outcome.]
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The intervention may be:

* explicitly giving a new drug to patients,
* explicitly applying wear testing loads to two different flooring materials,
* explicitly exposing people to different stimuli,
* explicitly applying a different dose of fertiliser.
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# Types of RQs

There are different types of research questions:

| RQ Type        | POCI Elements Included           |
|:---------------|:-------------|
| Descriptive RQs    | PO |
| Relational RQs     | POC      |
| Interventional RQs | POCI    |

***Descriptive RQs***. Typically, descriptive RQs look like this: *Among {the population}, what is {the outcome}?*

***Relational RQs***. 
Relational RQs have no intervention; the connection or comparison is not imposed by the researchers.

Typically, relational RQs based on a comparison look like this: *Among {the population}, is {the outcome} the same for {the groups being compared}?*

***Interventional RQs***. Interventional RQs may look like relational RQs, except that the comparison or connection is determined or allocated (i.e., imposed) by the researchers.

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# Kahoot!

## Go to [kahoot.it](https://kahoot.it/) and use

## the code provided

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# Ethics in research

NEON (2018) *THREE IDENTICAL STRANGERS [Trailer] In theaters June 29th*, online video, 13 April, NEON, viewed 3 March 2023, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uM5TQ4f7ycw?>.

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# Ethics in research

Common ethical issues to consider are:

* ***Physical risks***: Participants should not experience physical harm or discomfort,
* ***Psychological risks***: Participants should not experience psychological harm or discomfort,
* ***Social risks***: Participants should not experience any social harm or discomfort,
* ***Environmental risks***: Any damage to the environment should be minimised,
* ***Confidentiality***: Data should be kept confidential,
* ***Plagiarism***: The work of others should be appropriately acknowledged.

One way to ensure that the results of research are reliable and trustworthy is to ensure that research is reproducible: that someone else can repeat the study (including the analysis):

Reproducibility involves methods to ensure that independent scientists can reproduce published results by using the same procedures and data as the original investigators. It also requires that the primary investigators share their data and methodological details.

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# See you in the computer labs!

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These notes have been prepared by Illia Donhauzer and Amanda Shaker. They are based on material written by Peter K. Dunn. Unless otherwise stated, material within this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike License <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA </a>
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